Alexandria During The Islamic Age

The Planning and Development of Alexandria in the Islamic Age

Prof. Dr. El Sayed Abdel Aziz Salem

When the Arabs conquered the city of Alexandria, the first peaceful conquest at the beginning of Al Moharam in 21 AH (Moslem Calendar) they were dazed by what they saw of the beautiful architecture and splendid planning and expansive buildings. They found houses covered in bright white marble and impenetrable rock fences upheld by forts and huge towers surrounding the city. Longitudinal streets that intersected perpendicularly in what looks like a chessboard. Large open squares decorated with statues, pillars and subterranean cisterns that surrounded the city on ferrules with light outlets and air tunnels. Archaeological remains of ancient buildings of world wide fame in the ancient and middle eras such as Pharos (the famous Alexandria lighthouse) constructed to guide ships and  considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World. There were also ruins of the Ptolemic Dar El Hekma which the nomad Benjamin Tatelli called Aristotle’s Academy and Pompeii’ s Pillar being the names given to the southern gate of Alexandria, as well as Cleopatra’s two needles which were erected in front of Caesar’s Temple.

          After the Arab Conquest Alexandria retained its Greek architectural planning designed by Hepotamus the Meletian during the 5^th Century BC applied in Rhodes, Beraysus and Helekarnasus, while Denocorates applied it in Alexandria. The planning of Alexandria was in straight perpendicular streets intersecting with horizontal streets at right angles, in what resembles a chessboard. Alexandria was planned in the form of a strip of inhabited area that extended in length along the coastline infiltrated with a network of straight roads paved with coloured basalt. There were seven vertical streets from the east to the west parallel to the coast and twelve roads intersecting  horizontally from the north to the south. The intermediary street from all vertical and horizontal ones was arched from both sides and connected from its beginning and end with one of the four gates that open to the impenetrable city wall. The main vertical road cardo maximus known as Canopian because it headed east towards  Canope Street district (currently known as Abou Qir) It was called in the Islamic era El Mahaga El Ozma (the great pilgrimage) and both its sides were decorated with pillars, statues and some triumphal arches. Perpendicular to it and intersecting it from the middle was a horizontal street known as Seema. It started from the northern gate known as Bab El Bahr and ended in the south with Bab El Amoud also known in the Islamic era as Bab Sedra and Bab El Bohar.

          The Arab conquerors did not change anything in Alexandria’s old plan because the Arab tribes that participated in the conquest settled in the numerous houses that were abandoned when the Byzantiums evacuated Alexandria. Many tribes from Yemen, Lakhm, Gozam, Kenda, Azod, Khozaa, Mazaghna and Hadareya acted as coast guards. Lakhm stayed in Koum El Dekka, Gozam in Barakat Gozam, Kenda in Barakel, Hadramout in El Hadarma St, Khozaa and Mazaghna in Abou Qir.

          The new types of buildings that the Arabs introduced did not exceed the mosques that were built by conquerors such as the Western Antique Mosque, known as the one thousand pillar mosque erected by Amr Ibn El Aas at the site where currently the ruins of the Virgin Mary Church built by Patriarch Theonas lie. Another was Moses Mosque situated close to the lighthouse. There was also El Khodr Mosque close to El Qaysaria, El Rahma Mosque close to Cleopatra’s needles in an area that was known as Barakat, the mosque was also known as El Kesaria Mosque. Another being Labkhat Mosque named after some Labkh trees, and Thee El Karnein Mosque which was most probably erected at the site where now we found Nabi Daniel Mosque.   

In addition to these mosques there were several large mansions. One of them was built by Zobeir Ibn El Awam, and several others were established by Zayan Ibn Abdel Aziz Ibn Marawan, as well as some arms,  fortresses and watch towers along the coastline to guard Alexandria which became known as Alexandria El Mahrousa (the safeguarded).

          Yet it was not long before the architectural planning of Alexandria was affected by unfavourable circumstances and the developed areas in it shrunk in size, as its population decreased after the first Arab Conquest in 21 HD and the second conquest in 25 HD, when some sectors of Alexandria’s wall with their towers and fortresses were demolished. This led to the retreat of the buildings zone inwards and the drying of the Nile water at the Gulf of Alexandria due to the increase in sand and mud residues, and the city’s inhabitants dependence on wells and cisterns.

          In the second half of the 3^rd century HD, especially during the Tulunid State Alexandria witnessed a new era. The scientific and economic life began to flourish after two centuries of deterioration. Beginning from the 1st century HD, as a natural result of the decrease of developed areas and the destruction of parts of its eastern and southern walls at the hands of the Bany Madlag revolutions. Ibn Tulun was the reason behind the positive changes, for he built a wall around the inhabited areas during his visit to Alexandria in 257 HD. He aimed to connect those areas and exclude the southern area, which included the Serapium, Pompeii’s Pillar and some ruins. He opened the eastern gate in the new wall, and it became known as the Bab Rasheed, Bab Sedra, the Tree or Al Amoud (the Pillar). Despite these changes, Alexandria retained its Ptolemic planning with the exception of the heavily populated areas of the west and north west districts of the city. The buildings of this area became more complicated due to new additions of markets and randomly built housing areas according to the nature of Islamic cities. It was cut vertically from the eastern gate to the western gate known as Bab Akhdar or Karafa, the same wide road of the Mahaga El Ozma (Great pilgrimage) which was intersected horizontally by a road that extended between Bab El Amoud (Pillar Gate) in the south and Bab El Bahr (the sea gate) in the north. In 259 HD Ibn Tulun ordered the redigging of the Gulf of Alexandria which was covered with sand and soil residues before 245 HD. With the exception of the alleys and alleyways networks which were newly built in the heavily populated areas of the northern and southern west of Alexandria, the rest of the inhabited sectors of Alexandria retained their old chessboard architectural design.

          During the Fatimid period the architectural planning of Alexandria did not vary from that of the Tulun period. It possessed according to the nomad Ibn Saeed, wider, simpler and more beautiful streets than Tunisia. It was also described by Ibn Gobeir, the Andalusian in his journey during the time of Salah El Din in 578 HD as: ‘the best in it is the condition of the city and wideness of its buildings, we have never seen a city with wider or older or more ornamented roads’. When Ibn Batuta visited the city for the first time in 725 HD he praised it and described it as ‘The well guarded coastal city, the well populated state, the wondrous place, and the well built city’. Moreover, the nomad Khaled El Balawy, the Andalusian attests in his book Tag El Mafraq in praise of scientists of the east that ‘he had never seen a city better situated or more wonderfully designed or possessing more wide roads, more lofty buildings, more beautiful alleys, a city that is glamorous and perfect as a whole and in detail’.

It is the white palaces, whatever they say about other states or buildings.

It is eye catching with its pearls when the night sheds its dark mask.

‘As if all the beauties of the world are in it displayed and the picture of heaven upon it engraved’

It is probable that building and construction activities expanded from the south and the east during the Fatimid era, served as a prelude to its prosperity and boom during the Mamluk period. As a consequence of the boom in economy new districts emerged outside the eastern and southern walls. Like the Ramleh area, where palaces and parks were seen, such as the palace of Bany Kholeif, which Alexandrians constructed at the Raml district from the eastern side. It was grandly built and lofty and was described by the poet Abou El Fath Nasrallah Ibn Makhlouf,  also known as Ibn Kalkass, (576 HD) in a poem:

A palace in the breeze where gardens revealed their secrets

…….. And surpassed the Roman palaces

While the poet Abou El Taher Ismail known as Ibn Maknassa (who died in 510 HD) described one of Alexandria’s parks saying:

It has a water spring I thought was a giant glass building.

Then it bent and curved shivering and hesitant.

One of the most famous palaces of Alexandria during the Fatimid period was the palace of its judge Makeen El Dawla Ahmed Ibn Hadeed. That palace’s greatness was praised by the poet Thafer Ibn Hadad and Omeya Ibn Aby Al Salt, as it was an awe inspiring garden that contained a marble fountain attached to an artificial spacious lake. Two Sunni schools were established in Alexandria, the oldest of them was the Hafezeya School founded by the Minister Radwan Ibn Walkhashy in 532 HD (1138 AD) at the Mahaga street. The second school was the Salafia School or the Adeleya which was founded by Ali Ibn El Sallar known as El Adel (the just) who was the Governor of Alexandria in 544 HD (1149 AD).

During the Fatimid period the Minster Badr El Gamally, the Prince of All Armies, renovated the Attarine Mosque in 477 HD after it had been reduced to ruins. The scholar and scientist Abou Bakr Mohamed Ibn El Waleed Al Tartoushi resident of Alexandria, built a mosque in 516 HD at Bab El Bahr. Also El Moatamen Nezam El Din Abou Torab Haydara, Governor of Alexandria established a mosque at El Mahaga El Ozma Street in 517 HD.

          Alexandria retained the general architectural design of its main streets at the Ayyubid Era, with the exception of the new suburban districts in the west and south like the Attarine district and its neighbouring new housing areas. They were built according to the designs of Islamic cities with alleys and narrow streets crowded with simple dwellings and small shops in addition to markets and khans that were usually built in the heavily populated areas of the city close to the Bab Akhdar.

          As for schools, they were usually built in scattered places in the coastal city specially in heavily populated areas, while watch towers were distributed in sites close to the coast or in the inhabited strip of land connected to the peninsula of the well known lighthouse between the two ports outside the northern wall of Alexandria.

          That architectural design did not change in the Mamluk Period or the Ayyub Era. El Mahaga El Ozma remained the main street cutting the city from the eastern gate to Bab Akhdar. It was intersected in the middle with the main vertical avenue extending from Bab Sedra to Bab El Bahr. In that road leading to the sea was situated El Safar Mansion, while Gefar El Kasareen was situated close to it, or the Dewan close to Bab El Bahr towards the eastern port. Inside the city in the heavily populated areas numerous inns and hotels were built, one of them was the Saffar Hotel situated near the Sabanna area. To the west of it was El Saleh Palace at the Zereeba District close to Bab El Akhdar, with a mosque attached to it, as well as marble halls. It extended from Bab El Bahr to the light house peninsula in an area of palaces and Sufis watch towers and tombs like Abi El Abbass El Morsi shrine and its mosque, the Sowar watch tower and El wasty watch tower and Abou Abdallah Mohamed Ibn Sallam watch tower founded in 766 and destroyed by Cypriots in their invasion of Alexandria, after only one year of their foundation. There was also Prince Toghya watch tower at the light house peninsula and Gekmass El Ishaky and El Hakary watch towers in El Kasrein area (the two palaces) at the time of Al Ashraf KayetBay situated outside Bab El Bahr to the west of El Silsila coast.

          In addition to those establishments it is worth mentioning that other governmental houses like Dar El Darb, and the House of the Eastern Modern Industry, it seemed in the Fatimid era to be next to Bab El Diwan and the old west close to Bab Akhdar. There was also Dar El Teraz situated between the two walls extending parallel to the coast. Dar El Adl (the court), which was next to the Sultan House. The treasury was next to Dar El Sultan.

          The commercial area close to the customs house included the commercial districts. That was the reason why most hotels were situated in those districts to make it easy for foreign merchants to spend the night and sell their commodities. Some of these hotels were El Katlan Hotel, the Southerners, the Venicians, the Banana Hotel situated in El Morganeyeen street, the Tabeeba Hotel, the Jokandar Hotel and El Damameny at El Gewar Market.

There were numerous markets, some of which were the Attarine, El Gewar, Wekalet El Kettan opposite El Attarine Mosque, the carpenters market, the straw weavers market, kesareyat Al Aagem, Kayaser El Bazazeen, El Selah market (weapons market). There were also the small shops at El Morganeyeen Street in the Maareeg area, El Shamaeen market, and the jewellery market.

Alexandrians had three main cemeteries, one was outside the walls of Bab El Akhdar called Waala Cemetery, the second one was Bab El Amoud (the same site as nowadays), and the third one was Bab Sharqi situated outside that gate and might be the current Manara Cemetery. In the area between the two ports outside Bab El Bahr there was another cemetery designated to some princes and important sheikhs, where prince Taghya, Prince Balat and Sheikh Abi El Abbass El Morsi and his four students were buried.

The architecturally developed area of Alexandria expanded at the time of the two Mamluk states and included in addition to its squares some suburbs outside the eastern and southern walls such El Serreya suburb which was situated to the southern east of it, El Kasrein which extended outside the eastern coast of the city, and Koum El Afia suburb which was inhabited by Jews from the eastern area of Alexandria where now we find the Jewish cemetery.

          Alexandria’s northern wall that extended to the west from Bab El Bahr until Bab Akhdar was double sided and between the main wall and the front wall was an expansive avenue where Dar El Teraz for spinning and weaving was established. Close to it was the western industry establishment (most probably it was the Ptolemic Dar) which continued to produce cannons and arms. It is believed that the monument discovered recently at Asakel El Ghelal street in Mina El basal is related to an entrance in the form of a Pharonic edifice leading to a staircase that ends in a second entrance equipped with an upper chasm that was probably designated to an iron draw bridge that used to ascend and descend by way of rotating cogwheels. It was added to that building in order to fortify it after it was burned by Cypriots when they invaded Alexandria.

 The wall of Alexandria at the time of the Mamluks had nine gates, five of them in the northern wall. They were Bab El Dewan facing the eastern port, Bab El Bahr and within it a smaller gate known as Bab El Ghadr which was the most important of the northern gates. Next to it the Fatimids erected Dorgham Tower in 557 HD. There was also Bab El Khoka, and Bab El Akhdar close to the end of the northern wall from the western side. In the southern wall there were two gates Bab El Amoud or Bab Sedra in the middle of the wall, then Bab El Zohary named after Sheikh Mohamed El Zohary at the furthest south east end of the wall. There was also one gate at the middle of the eastern wall named Bab El Sharq or Bab Rasheed. The western side had one gate named Bab El Karafa.

          We add also to the buildings and establishments of Alexandria some scientific schools. In addition to the Oufia and Salafia schools there was the Kholaseya and Nabolseya schools and El Tekreety school and Dar El Hadeth Al Nabeheya of the Malek doctrine. There was also El Fakhr, El Belbessi, Ibn Habassa, El Damamini,  Serageya Ibn El Ibrazy, and El Khedr School named after Sheikh Khedr El Mahrany, and its remains are known today as Zaweyat Sidi Khedr.

As for the inner districts, El Noweiry the Alexandrian provided us with some of their names such as El Maareeg area including Kashasheen market, El Morganeyeen shops, Kaysareya El Aagm close to Bab Akhdar.

Islamic Alexandria:

The History of the City from the Arab Conquest to the Fatimid Era

Prof. Dr. Saad Zaghloul Abdel Hamid

Introduction:

Before the Arab conquest, not only was Alexandria the capital of Egypt, but it was also the cultural and civilisation capital of the Hellenistic world. Hence it was the centre of scientific and philosophic knowledge, and its universities and institutes attracted seekers of knowledge and truth from all over the world, while its lighthouse guided ships to safety in its large port.

During the middle of the 7^th century AD Egypt was conquered by Arabs and Islam prevailed. Thus began a new era. Alexandria was no longer the capital of Egypt, but was replaced by Fostat which was built in the area connecting the Delta to Upper Egypt. It was natural that Alexandria would lose some of its old status as a result of Egypt’s move towards the Arab world and its separation from the Roman world. Thus it became a separating border on the coast holding back the Roman enemy as well as a naval defence front with the adjective “thaghr” meaning rift or chasm attached to it throughout the Islamic era and up to the modern age. It was a target for the Romans, the Crusaders and the Sicilians. Then more recently it became the focus of interest for the French and the British.

However, Alexandria also had its established position among the cities of the Arab Islamic world, thanks to its coastal position on the northern route of the African continent extending from the Suez isthmus in the east to the city of Fas at the furthest western point. Alexandria was the most important land station connecting the east and the west, and thanks to its large port it remained the most important naval station to the east of the Mediterranean with traders flocking to it from the east and the west.

In addition to economic prosperity, Islamic Alexandria witnessed great architectural edifices, large mosques were erected as well as famous schools and shrines. To this day Alexandria is still proud of its numerous famous Sheikhs, scientists and scholars.

The Arab Conquest of Alexandria

         

Different from all other Arab conquests, the conquest of Egypt was fairly easy. It is said that the Arab forces that entered Egypt during the conquest did not exceed 10000 men. It was unusual that they managed to conquer Alexandria with minimal forces although Alexandria was closely connected to Constantinople through the Byzantine fleet that controlled the Mediterranean Sea known to Arabs as the Roman Sea. When the great commander Amr Ibn El Aass conquered the fort of Babylon, nothing remained to be conquered except Alexandria, so he marched towards it. The native Copts offered him their help. He thought that the large coastal city can stop the advance of the Arabs, and that they could not put it under siege except from the east and south east, since the north was open to the sea and the west was surrounded by the lake coming from the Nile. Consequently the Arabs had to camp at a distance from the city and with them stood leaders of the Copts. The fighting took the form of sporadic skirmishes and a few duels that ended in the defeat of the soldiers of the Byzantium fort and their retreat behind the walls of the city and the return of the Arabs to their camps in the south.

At the same time peace negotiations were underway in Babylon while the Emperor Hercules was displeased with El Mokawkess, Governor of Egypt, because the latter was realistic enough to consider it necessary to accept the peace with the Arabs according to their own terms. Hercules wrath was of no avail, and the troops he directed to Alexandria as well as his attempts to raise the enthusiasm of the Romans residing in the city and encouraging them to resist the Arabs were all futile. Hercules died during the siege of Babylon (11 February 641, 22 Safar 20 HD). The new Emperor Herculaneous decided to reinstate El Mokawkess, to put an end to the many discordant parties among the citizens of Alexandria.

 Commander Amr and the Governor El Mokawkess signed the Alexandria peace agreement after a nine-month siege. The Coptic historian Hanna El Nakyosy states that one of the terms of that agreement was that taxes should be paid by anyone who enters into that agreement. It is understood that the poll tax here differs from that agreed upon in Babylon’s tax (2 dinars), it was accumulative according to ownership of farmland or financial status. The agreement stipulated the establishment of a truce that would last for 11 months during which time the Roman troops would withdraw and never return to Egyptian soil. The Arabs as was their custom guaranteed in the agreement the freedom of worship and the safety of the churches. It was also agreed that the Jews would be allowed to remain in Alexandria. In order that the Arabs ensure the implementation of the terms of the agreement, they took Byzantium hostages. The Arabs entered Alexandria at the end of 20 HD (641 AD).

The Description of Alexandria as seen by the Arabs:

The Arabs had never a seen a city like Alexandria before. It had huge palaces, luxurious temples; wide streets with arches erected upon beautifully designed pillars and wonderful statues. All that had a profound effect on them and inspired them to describe its splendour.

It is evident from the description of Alexandria by the historian Ibn Abdel Hakam that the city was divided into three main districts. Each district was surrounded by a wall. Behind those walls there were three more districts with there own separate walls, the Egyptians district, the Roman district and the Jews district. It is well known that animosity was well pronounced between the occupants of the three districts, that was why each district had its own private walls within the main city walls and forts.

There is a splendid description of water cisterns that held the city’s water supply. They were built in levels, each above the other with many chambers. Hence the origin of that legend that says that Alexandria is built city upon city, as the cisterns were enormous in proportion, it led people to say that they encompassed the city. Some of these cisterns still exist and they were filled with fresh lake water during floods. As for the arched markets, it is well known that many of Alexandria’s streets had arches from both sides built on beautiful pillars specially in the two main streets the vertical Canope (Fouad or El Horreya Avenue nowadays) and El Rassy (Nabi Daniel Street). Since the Greater Street (Horreya Avenue) was the place for buying and selling, thus it was like an arched market. There is no doubt that the commercial roofed road was the inspiration behind building roofed markets in Arab cities known as Kaysareya (Caesarean derived from the name Caesar). It is thought that Alexandria’s Caesarean during the first Arab era was in that road, and perhaps it was close to the current Attarine market which is bordered by the old greater road.

The most famous of Alexandria’s landmarks is Pharos or the lighthouse, one of the seven wonders of the world, the remains of its square base lie at the current Kayetbey castle at the Anfoushi district. There is a good description of the lighthouse given by the historian El Masoudi (332 HD, 944 AD) stating that the lighthouse was made up of 3 levels. The lower level was square in shape built in stone; the middle level was an octagon built in pebbles and gravel and was less in diameter than the lower level. The upper level was circular and less in diameter than the second level. El Masoudi also mentioned that an earthquake occurred in 324 HD/955 AD and demolished 30 feet from the top of the lighthouse.

Historians mention that at the top of the lighthouse there was a mosque dating back to Prophet Solomon. That mosque was the object of attention of the ruler of Egypt Ahmed Ibn Toulon in 262 HD/755AD, and was the residing place of coast guards who stood watch to guard the city’s coast. The lighthouse was respected by Alexandrians who dedicated one day for it as annual feast. It was always a Thursday (Khamis El Ahd), the spring feast for the Egyptians who is equivalent to Sham El Nessim the current spring feast. People used to ascend to the top of the lighthouse on that day to contemplate its splendid structure and gaze at the sea from above. Some even prayed in the mosque at its top to receive blessings from morning till noon, and from that day the guardianship of the sea started.

The lighthouse had its impact on Islamic architecture in the east and on Arab countries in the west. It also influenced the design of church towers in Egypt, Syria and Lebanon. From such towers the Arabs were inspired to build minarets for mosques starting from the second half of the 1^st century HD during the reign of Moslema Ibn Khaled in Egypt. The oldest model of that type of minaret is that of El Gamea Mosque in Kayrawan. The minarets that truly represent the design of the lighthouse were Ashbelia’s Mosque in Andalusia (which has been converted into a cathedral tower and is currently known as El Kheralda), the minaret of El Kateeba Mosque in the city if Morocco, and the minaret of Hassan Mosque in the city of Rabat whose upper parts were never completed. The historian Abdel Wahed the Moroccan states that the minaret of Hassan’s Mosque that was built by Al Mansour Al Mowahedy at the end of the 6^th century HD/ 12^th century AD, was built according to the design of the Alexandria lighthouse and the city of Rabat itself (capital of Morocco) was built with same design of Alexandria with its expansive straight streets and its grand buildings.

After the lighthouse comes Amoud El Sawary (Pompeii’s Pillar) which Arab writers date back to Prophet Solomon. It is described as a great unique pillar that is a cylinder in shape with a thickness of 36 "shebr" (the span of the hand) and great height. The crown of the pillar was perfectly made indicating that there was some kind of construction on top of it.  The name Amoud El Sawary is now given to the cemetery of Alexandria, and it is considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World.

Pompeii’s Pillar is situated to the north of the greatest palace of Alexandria, the Serapium Temple that is described as a unique edifice. It was situated in the same area as Pompeii’s Pillar, parallel to the southern gate named Bab El Shagara, currently known as Bab Sodra. The Temple was built on a high hill known as Tobgeya it was 500 cubit in length and 250 cubit in width. The Arab writers do not describe anything except its remains of Sawari which were about 100 vertical cylinders each 10 “shebr” in thickness. These relatively small “sawari” (masts) gave the Pompeii Pillar its name “Amoud El Sawari” (the Pillar of the Masts). The present site has no pillars except the largest one. It is well known historically that Koraja who was Governor of Alexandria at the time of Salah El Din threw the pillars into the sea to protect the shore from the breaking of the waves (similar to what is done now with concrete blocks), or to deter enemies coming from the sea.

The playground was brilliantly designed so that the spectators could see each other and at the same time watch whatever events or games were taking place. There is a story that says that Amr Ibn El Aass attended before the conquest one of Alexandria’s sport festivals in that stadium, and when the ball that the girls and boys were playing with fell into his pocket, it was considered a premonition that he would own Alexandria. Alexandria is proud of that wonderful stadium which was recently discovered beneath some ruins in Kom El Dekka next to the current Fire Brigade Department.

Among the most important landmarks of Alexandria at the time were two great Roman churches. The first of which was the Church of San Marco where his corpse was buried until it was moved to Venice at the 9^th century AD. The second one was the Caesarean “Kaysareya” Church that had two ancient obelisks in its courtyard, they were moved to New York and London. There is an area in the street named after those two obelisks (situated to the south of the Raml station).

It is most probable that Alexander’s tomb was not far from El Kaysaroun district. El Masoudi in his book Moroog El Dahab (Fields of Gold) mentions the tomb without specifying its location. It is possible that he was quoting ancient writers when he said that Alexander’s corpse was placed in an alabaster coffin.

The last landmark worth noting despite that fact that Arab writers did not mention it, is the Alexandria Library which is currently being resurrected in its old location on Alexandria University grounds, to the north of the university campus of the faculties of Arts, Commerce and Law. Modern research has proved the incorrectness of the story that says that Amr Ibn El Aass burned that library.

         

Alexandria retained its old architectural plan that was based on the division of the city into straight lined streets that intersect at right angles resembling a chessboard along the coastline. Its two main streets remained the horizontal one was known as the Malaga Ozma (the great pilgrimage). To the east there was the eastern gate, and opposite it from the west the western gate later known as Bab Akhdar.

To the south of Alexandria there was Lake Marriott supplied with fresh water from the Nile. The area was rich in gardens and farms on the banks of the old canal at the furthest end of the housing area that extended to Baraka land. Ships used to sale in the Nile to carry out their trade transactions with the merchants of Alexandria.

Alexandria after the Arab Conquest:

It is said that Amr Ibn El Aass wanted to keep Alexandria the capital of the country, but Caliph Omar Ibn El Khatab refused when he found out that the Nile during its flood stands as a barrier between it and Arab countries. It is said also that the Arabs did not make it their capital because of its strategic location as a port that makes it subject to raids from the sea, especially by the Byzantium fleet. Also the presence of a large Roman community in the city made the Arabs feel insecure to live in close proximity to them.

On the other hand the Arabs showed great foresight when they planned Fostat next to Babylon, the site of the traditional capitals of Egypt; Ein Shams and Manf in an intermediate position between upper and lower Egypt, which were the symbol of unity between the two sides. Thus it was natural that Alexandria’ status diminished after the rich Romans deserted it. This led to a depression in trade activities and the suffering of those Romans who remained in the city. However, the status of the locals of the city improved. In fact the Arabs befriended the Copts and treated them as relatives on the basis that Hagar; Ismail’s mother was one of them. Yet the situation in Alexandria changed to some extent when the Caliph demanded an increase in the taxes sent to Hegaz because of the drought they were suffering from. An increase was demanded on taxes from 12 million dinars to 14. That had negative repercussions in Alexandria.

Stability in Alexandria did not last more than four years after which the Romans returned in 645 AD/ 25 HD in a large sea campaign in a 300-ship fleet led by Admiral Manuel. The moment they reached the shore all the Romans who were still living in Alexandria joined them, while the Copts joined the Arabs. Caliph Othman Ibn Affan ordered Amr Ibn El Ass to return to Egypt to face the Romans anew (since he had great experience and knowledge of war). When Amr arrived, the Romans had already assumed control over Alexandria and progressed towards Fostat. Some villagers joined them, though the majority of the natives refused to co-operate with them. Amr met the Romans at a town called Nachos on the banks of the Nile not far from the city of Menouf. There a fierce battle ensued, on land as well as in the river. It resulted in the defeat of the Romans and their retreat to Alexandria while Manuel remained on the battlefield.

The Romans took refuge in Alexandria whose walls and forts stood in defiance of Amr once again. However, he managed to surprise the Romans by buying off the guards of one of the gates. He avenged himself and only a few of the Romans managed to flee using their boats. He killed large numbers of them and tracked them down till the middle of the city. He spared those of them who asked for his mercy, and in the spot where they were pardoned he ordered the building of a mosque. It was named the Mosque of Mercy. He also ordered the destruction of the southern and south eastern walls. That explains why the housing and development activities retreated inwards after the second conquest. Amr repaired some of the damage incurred by the Romans in their second raid, and remained for a month, then he assigned the rule of the city to Abdallah Ibn Said Ibn Aby Sarh who also fought later battles against the Romans.

Early Mosques and the Beginning of Arabization:

Following the end of the second campaign of Romans in 25 HD/645 AD Alexandria began to lose its foreign characteristics. It began to Arabize gradually with the passage of time. However, it weakened economically and financially. Moreover, after it used to be the capital of Greek thought it began to sever its ties with the past, and strengthen its connections with the Arabic present, though the Arabs lived in  Fostat not Alexandria. However, some of their upper classes resided in Alexandria either permanently of on a temporary basis, like El Zobeir Ibn El Awam. Amr Ibn El Aass took a palace there in an area described as the mount (Koum), Ebeida Ibn El Samet, one of the companions of the prophet, accompanied him. There Amr built his ancient mosque named the Amr Ibn Aass Mosque; it lies close to the shrine of Sidi Aby El Derdaa not far from Pompeii’s Pillar, in the old native district close to Bab Sedra. The Mercy Mosque was situated in the site called Sidi Amr at El Shalalat gardens, not far from the old Greek district or the Masala district.  In less than 50 years the Mosque of Amr became one of five mosques in Alexandria that were known for being sacred and revered by the people of the city, the other four were: Prophet Moses Mosque – El Khodr Mosque – Thee El Karnein Mosque – Solomon’s Mosque.

We notice that those early mosques were named after Israeli prophets, most probably they were originally Jewish synagogues, as Jewish traditions were well known in Alexandria. The current Nabi Daniel mosque in a street with the same name reminds us of those ancient mosques.

The Coast Watch Towers and the Battle of the Masts:

Since Alexandria was considered a sea battle front, the Arabs gave it special attention. Amr Ibn EL Aass dedicated a quarter of his forces to it alone and another quarter to all other coasts. Alexandria’s large garrison resided in the city only during the summer that was the season for sea battles. It used to reside in the city six months each year starting from April and ending in October when it left the city and headed inwards. It spent winter in replenishing and mending all its resources. It was replaced then with a much smaller garrison.

Ever since Othman Ibn Affan came into power more Arabs were interested in sea voyages, and interest in Alexandria grew and it regained its status as a naval base and centre of the ship building industry. With remarkable speed Alexandria achieved its first triumph over the Romans in the famous sea battle known as Thee El Sawari (the battle of the Masts) in 34 HD/654 AD. That battle was the beginning of a series of conflicts with the Romans, they were started by Abdallah Ibn Aby Saad who succeeded Amr Ibn El Aass in Alexandria in 25 HD/946AD and in Sufetula in Tunisia in 27 HD/648 AD. That is understood from historical texts which point out that the Governor of Egypt marched half the men of the fleet by land as he had expected the Romans to arrive by land heading towards Tripoli in the west. The battle was called Thee El Sawari to point out that the Roman fleet probably was heading towards Alexandria as they had done 9 years earlier. The encounter between the Roman fleet, which comprised hundreds of ships and the Alexandrian fleet, which had only 200 ships ended in the defeat of the Roman fleet. During their retreat the Roman fleet faced a strong hurricane that destroyed most of its ships ensuring a complete victory for the Arabs.

After Thee El Sawari the caliphate crisis began. It was called the major tumult or the tumult of the murder of Othman. It was the reason behind a great political unrest in Egypt and Alexandria as the followers of Caliph Moaweya resorted to the latter in 38 HD/958 AD, it ended in Amr’s regaining his rule of Egypt and Alexandria.

Alexandria during the Umayyad Era and the Continuation of Arabization

Moaweya, the Caliph of Damascus, paid great attention to maritime affairs and the fleet. Thus it was natural that his interest in Alexandria would increase. He responded to a call of the Governor of Alexandria Al Kama El Ghoteify, the hero of Thee El Sawari and the garrison of Alexandria was increased from 12000 to 27000 men. The increase constituted 10000 men from Syria, 5000 from the citizens of the city. That meant that Alexandria kept receiving Arabs from Syria and El Hegaz, so its Arabization continued. It also explains the renewed building and construction activities and the increase in the number of mosques.

From 44 HD/664 AD the Governor of El Fostat Attaba Ibn Aby Sofian who was the brother of the Caliph, built a government house in Alexandria, making the city the headquarters of the Governor, and the second capital of the country. Consequently the Governor of Egypt became the Prince of the Seas (Admiral of the Navy) besides his being the General Commander of the Army. Thus when the news of the death of Caliph Moaweya reached the Governor of Egypt Moslema Ibn Mokhled in 60 HD/ 679 AD while he was in Alexandria. He wrote to his deputy in Fostat to take the pledge of allegiance of the new Caliph Yazeed Ibn Moaweya since he did not return from Alexandria until the beginning of 61 HD/680 AD.

During the rule of Abdel Aziz Ibn Marawan of Fostat in 65 HD/ 685 AD he used to go constantly to Alexandria and he appointed his son Governor of Alexandria. When Abdel Aziz assigned the rule of Morocco to Hassan Ibn El Noaman who built the city of Tunisia in compensation for Kortajana, Alexandria had an important role in the building of the Tunisian House of Industry specialised in shipbuilding. This happened when 1000 Coptic experts in ship building with their families settled there and managed to establish and develop that industry in the west of Morocco.

What explains the interest of the Caliphate in Alexandria during the Umayyad era and after it during the Abassid era was the geographical location of the city at the west of the coast of the Delta. That location made it an ideal refuge for many resisting factions of the Caliphate and the Governor of Fostat. In 90 HD/708 AD Alexandria became the refuge of the Khawareg (dissidents) who created an atmosphere of unrest for the Caliphate in Iraq.

When Korra Ben Shereek marched to Alexandria the Khawareg were plotting to get rid of him. About 100 men gathered in the square opposite the lighthouse. However, news of the conspiracy reached the Governor who succeeded in taking them by surprise, arresting and imprisoning them in the ground floor of the light house prior to executing them.

Alexandria was also involved in the siege of Costantinople organised by Caliph Soliman Ibn Abdel Malek in 98 HD/796 AD where the Admiral of the Egyptian naval force was Okba Ibn Nafei (Abu Obeida) who returned to his position after Amr Ibn Abdel Aziz became Governor. It is noted that the successors of Okba Ibn Nafei exchanged the leadership of the naval forces and had an important role in the war of the Romans. The same is said about Bany Hadeeh, the governors exchanged naval leadership besides the police force.

At the end of the Umayyad era Alexandria participated in the great revolution against them and one of the descendants of Okba Ibn Nafei (Al Aswad Ibn Nafei) took this chance and hurried to Alexandria where he raised the black flag of the Abassids and cheered in their name. However, he was defeated by the forces of Marwan Ibn Mohamed, the last of the Umayyads, despite the crisis he was in. The restoration of Alexandria was the last success achieved by Marwan Ibn Mohamed, as it was not long before he was killed in Bousir at Fayoum the following month. Hence the Umayyad rule ended and the Abassid rule started.

Alexandria during the Abassid Era:

Egypt did not change the nature of its relationship with the caliphate during the Abassid era. It became a country under the rule of Baghdad instead of Damascus. Accordingly Alexandria’s status did not change much. However, the position of the western countries on the western border of Egypt changed as one after the other each region defected from the caliphate rule. It was only natural that Egypt and Alexandria would sense the impact of that situation.

Therefore, the Abassid caliphate had to focus its attention on Egypt every time it considered the western states in its attempts to retrieve them or protect itself from their threatening danger. From then on emerged the geographical importance of Alexandria as the first major station on the road to Morocco whether by sea or land.

With the establishment of the Abassid State and the closure of the East in the face of the Umayyads, many of them fled towards Morocco and Andalusia. Those who supported the Abassid cause and those who joined it were honoured by the state even if they used to work for the former Umayyads. Some of the distinguished names in Egypt were Ibn Hodeig, Ibn Okba Ibn Nafei and descendants of Moussa Ibn El Nosseir who conquered Tunisia and Morocco. It was natural that Saleh Ibn Ali, the Abassid Governor of Egypt, honoured those who supported the new rulers before they entered Egypt. One of them was Al Aswad Ibn Nafei as he gave him a piece of land in Bolaq North of Fostat, and granted him the houses that used to belong to Zabban Ibn Abdel Aziz Ibn Marwan who was murdered and his two sons fled to Andalusia.

As soon as things settled down for the first Abassid Caliph Abu El Abass, he started thinking of marching some armies to Morocco. The Abassid soldiers arrived in Egypt on their way to Morocco in 136 HD/ 753 AD led by the new Governor Aby Awn Abdel Malek Ben Yazeed. He was accompanied by Abassid heralds from the descendants of Moaweya Ibn Hodeig and Moussa Ibn Nosseir as they had followers and supporters in Africa. Alexandria had to prepare ships for them to take them to Tripoli in the west. This task was given to Al Mothana Ibn Zayed Al Khathamy who arrived in Alexandria in Shawal of that year/March 754 AD. When the Caliph died the heralds had already reached the city of Set (in Tripoli) while the army had reached Baraka, orders were issued that Aby Awn must return. As for the fleet of Alexandria we do not know if it had returned as well as or if it were not yet ready to embark on that journey.

When Abu Gaffer became the new Caliph, he took serious interest in Africa and made Mohamed Ibn El Ashath, the Governor of Egypt, and sent an army to fight the dissidents in Tripoli (the Abadeya). The army was led by Aby El Khatab Abdel Aala El Maaferi who, unfortunately, was defeated. Hence Ibn El Ashath himself had to go out to Fostat at the end of 142 HD/March 760 AD, after that he headed towards Alexandria on his way to Morocco. Although that meant that Alexandria became the base for military operations in Morocco, at that early stage of the Abassid State, especially after the fleet became indispensable to aid land forces. However, its unique position at the border of the Delta adjacent to Morocco made it the meeting point of the East and the West. That meant at the time that it was also the meeting point of political contradictions. Although the caliphate used to direct from Alexandria heralds and armies against rebels, the resisting factions of the caliphate still chose to make it their refuge.

When the Alawi clan of Bany El Hassan rebelled in Hegaz in 145 HD/762 AD and sent their heralds to Egypt. One of them was Khaled Ibn Said who took refuge in Alexandria and remained in hiding there after the failure of the revolution until he died in 160 HD/ 777AD during the reign of Caliph El Mahdi. That special position of Alexandria was the reason behind the governors continued interest in it. They used to leave Fostat to reside in the city that became a battlefront against foreign enemies, as wells as an internal borderline city.

The Annuals mentions that Mansour Ibn Yazeed Al Raeeny (cousin of the Caliph El Mahdy) the Governor of Egypt left Fostat to Alexandria in 162 HD/ 778 AD even though he had not been appointed governor for not more than three months.

Although the Arabs were great sea navigators and despite their naval supremacy yet the Roman fleet always continued to pose a threat to them, and their coasts and navigation routes. Accordingly the Governor of Egypt Dawood Ibn Yazeed El Mahalaby during the reign of El Rasheed had to send in 174 HD/ 790 AD a number of naval officers to Syria but they were captured by the Romans.

During the reign of El Rasheed “docile” Egypt came to know local disturbances and regional revolutions. The usual cause was the insistence of the caliphate and its representatives on increasing their taxes due to the caliphate’s need of more funds to spend on its lavish style of living. Similar to the revolutions of the Copts during the Umayyad reign, most of whom were taxpayers, now the Arabs were joined the Copts and other Egyptians who converted to Islam, as was the case in some of Alexandria’s revolutions. The centre for those disturbances was the eastern region (currently the Sharqaya Governorate) were the Kaysea Arabs and some Yamaneya lived. Then the tumult of Al Amin and Maamoun occurred (the caliphate and his brother who was second to the throne0 and it added new factors to the instability of the situation.

Since 196 HD/ 811 AD the revolution spread from the east to include all the Delta.  The Arabs living in Alexandria and around it from the Lakhm and Medleg tribes were greatly disturbed. One of the Lakhm tribe named Bahloul managed to overcome Alexandria, during the rule of Ebad Ibn Mohamed Ibn Hayan. The Caliph El Maamoun came to power in 198 HD/ 813 AD following the murder of the Caliph El Amin, and Al Motaleb Ibn Abdallah Al Khozaey became ruler of Egypt. Al Motaleb wanted to control Alexandria by appointing a strict and honourable governor from among its people, so that the dissidents would obey him and respect his rule. Thus he chose a member of Moaweya Ibn Hodeig’s family, namely Abdel Wahed Ibn Hodeig. However, it was an unfortunate choice and the Modleg tribes in Alexandria rebelled. When the governor sent to them his brother Haroun they managed to defeat him.

Andalusian Rule in Alexandria

Political unrest reached the Fostat, the capital. The soldiers revolted and reassigned Al Motaleb Ibn Abdel Malek Al Khozaee as Governor, he had been deposed by AL Maamoun in 199 HD/ 814 AD. The instability in Alexandria continued though its governor was changed. Alexandria’s contact with Fostat was cut for more than 10 years.  Ships from the west came to Alexandria they were not carrying Romans this time, but immigrants, seafarers and raiders from the Arabs of Andalusia.

It is well known to some writers that these Andalusians originally came from Cordoba in Andalusia. They had left their city following a dangerous uprising against their ruler known in Andalusian history asbd Battle. Thus many of those Arabs came to Alexandria. However, this is not exactly true as the great Rabd Revolution broke out in Cordoba after 201 HD/ 817 AD while we are currently discussing events that took place in 199 HD/ 814 AD. Moreover, the sources that supply us with interesting details about those Andalusians state that “they had returned from their invasion to buy what is of interest to them, this was typical of them through all times”. That meant that they were invaders from the sea, and invading countries was their occupation. The above is probably true because Andalusians surpassed other Arabs as to navigation and they inhabited the eastern coast harbours in Andalusia in Malka, Marea, and Balancia. They used to sail to the coast of France, the island of Sardinia and reach the coasts of Italy and Sicily. It is obvious that they expanded their sea voyages to reach the east of the Mediterranean Sea. What helped them was the fact that the all the southern coasts of the sea were Islamic and they could take refuge there if need be. Accordingly they made Alexandria the basis of their operations in the eastern parts of the Mediterranean, as mentioned above.

Egypt’s princes did not allow Andalusians to enter      the city of  Alexandria itself, but people used to go out to their ships with their own boats to trade with them. That meant that they were not interested except in matters relating to their own affairs and what food or weapons or other items they needed. Their exact numbers are not known, but historians sometimes say that they came in 40 ships. If we estimate that each ship carried 100 men or more then their numbers reached about 4 or 5 thousand men. Stories also mention that they came at the end of summer i.e. after the end of the season of sea invasions to trade in whatever booties they had. As for their interference in the affairs of Alexandria, that was a result of the unstable circumstances of the city, as they were invited by the deposed Governor Omar Ibn Helal Al Hodeigy to help him against the Governor appointed by the ruler of  Fostat. Their boats were anchored in front of Alexandria. The Alexandrines were infuriated at the Andalusian’ s interference in the affairs of the city so they rose against them and forced them to retreat to their ships after incurring a few casualties. However, the return of the legitimate Governor of Alexandria did not achieve the stability hoped for in Alexandria. The disturbances continued and reached Al Fostat and the governor was deported from Egypt via the Suez where he crossed the sea to El Hegaz.

Thus Ibn Helal returned to Alexandria and invited his Andalusian allies to land in Alexandria and settle there. However, peace was short lived between the two parties because of the unruly behaviour of the Andalusian soldiers, which upset the Alexandrines. Finally Ibn Helal was forced to send them back to their ships just as before.

As a result of the riots and disturbances breaking out in the cities, a group was formed that called for doing good and forbade committing evil actions. That group called itself the Sophists. Just as what happened in Baghdad when a group was formed and supervised security and ethics and fought theft and corruption, then got engrossed in the tumult and started interfering in politics, the Sophist group in Alexandria organised themselves under the leadership of Abdel Rahman El Sofi. They declared their opposition of the Governor and considered the Andalusians to be their natural allies at the time. The Sophists and Andalusians managed to attract to their side the Lakhmian Arabs in Alexandria who had their own greedy interests in Alexandria.

The allies gathered their men and their numbers reached 10000 men in addition to some adventurers who joined them.They all marched to Omar Ibn Helal El Hodeigy’s palace and placed it under siege in Thee El Keada 200 HD/ June 816 AD. When El Hodeigy saw that his palace was in danger and that he could not provide protection for his family, he prepared himself to die and ordered his family to lower him down from the palace. He was murdered as soon as he touched the ground with the rebels’ swords. They also insisted on murdering all the palace occupants.

However, the alliance between the Lakhmian Arabs and the Andalusians  soon ended, and immediately a war broke out between them and ended in the victory of the Andalusians who occupied Alexandria in Thee Hegga of the same year 200 HD/ July 816 AD. The Andalusians appointed Abu Abdel Rahman El Sofi Governor of Alexandria. He was a failure as a ruler and as an administrator and corruption prevailed in the city. Accordingly the Andalusians decided to depose him and rule Alexandria themselves. They appointed one of them called Al Kenany as Governor and succeeded in controlling all of Alexandria when they defeated the Arabs of the Modleg tribe and forced the Lakhmians to evacuate their land. The Governor of Fostat El Serry Ibn El Hakam could do nothing except acknowledge their presence.

The unstable circumstances in Fostat where El Serry’s sons were, in Teness (Damietta) north of the Delta where the Garwy was, and in Alexandria where the Andalusians were all  direct results of the tumult of the Abassid Caliphates between El Amin and El Maamoun. Solving the problems of both Fostat and Teness was easy as Maamoun appointed the sons of Serry tribe to rule Fostat, and appointed El Garwy  as Admiral of the Egyptian fleet being knowledgeable in navigation. However, the problem of the Andalusians in Alexandria required military force to solve it. Thus the pioneers of the Abassid soldiers from the Kharasaneya started heading towards Alexandria from Safar 212 HD/May 827 AD. They put the city under siege and in two weeks the forts surrendered peacefully and a peace agreement was reached on the condition that the Andalusians leave Alexandria to whichever countries they wished to go to, provided that these countries were not part of the caliphate. The Commander Ibn Taher appointed one of his Kharasani leaders to govern Alexandria; namely Elian Ibn Assad Ibn Salman Ibn Khada who was a descendent of Persian kings. The Andalusians headed towards the Island of Koreitash (Crete) and extracted it from the Romans and settled there forming a new Andalusian Princedom in the East of the Mediterranean Sea lead by Abu Hafss Omar El Balotty. That Princedom survived up till the middle of the 4^th century AD.

However, that was not the end of tumults in Egypt, as disturbances continued in the Eastern governorates in the North of the Delta, and in Alexandria, to the extent that El Moatassem (Ibn El Rasheed) had to go there in Ragab 214 HD/Sept. 829 AD accompanied by his new Turkish soldiers. In the following year the Commander assigned by the caliphate Al Afsheen came to quell the revolution which had swept the Delta (Arabs and Copts alike) as well as Alexandria.  Thus El Afsheen marched to Alexandria and killed whatever rebels stood in his way and entered the city without fighting in 19^th of Thee El Hegga 216 HD / 28^th Jan. 832 AD.

From then on a new development occurred in Alexandria and had its greatest impact on its population and its administrative and political systems. As in addition to the Arabs of the Arab conquest who had come from Hegaz, the Syrians and the Kharasni Arab soldiers who came to the country during the Abassid Caliphate, and ever since the Moatassem came to power the Turks began to arrive in Egypt as soldiers, workers and governors. That weakened the Arabs who were dropped out of many higher positions from 218 HD / 833 AD. The Persians and Turks began to occupy the higher posts of the Governorate as well as  the police forces.

Starting from 242 HD/856 AD no Arab was appointed Governor of Egypt. Ever since (the Maamoun returned to Baghdad in 217 HD/832 AD until 252 HD/856 AD we do not find any mention of Alexandria in the Annual reports on Egypt.

In 252 HD/866 AD Alexandria witnessed a lot of disturbances among its Arabs and Copts under the leadership of Gaber Ibn Al Walid Modlegy who succeeded in defeating the forces of the Governor Yazeed Ibn Abdallah Al Torky. He also defeated the forces of his deputy in Alexandria. Thus Gaber grew in strength and power and many people from neighbouring areas joined him, Moslems or Christians, white or black, Sunni or Shiite alike. Due to the gravity of the situation in Alexandria and its surrounding suburbs the caliphate sent from Iraq to Egypt the Turkish Commander Mazahem Ibn Khaqan who succeeded in overcoming Gaber’s men and allies one after the other. Accordingly Gaber’s strength weakened and he was defeated and retreated to Troga (Abu El Matameer) where he could not stand facing the Turkish soldiers so he fled to Giza, then Fayoum then he returned and surrendered together with a number of people from the Modleg tribe. He was imprisoned for fear of being assassinated by his enemies then he was sent to Iraq in 254 HD / 868 AD.

 Thus Gaber El Modlegy’s experience and before it the Andalusian experience in Alexandria and the areas around it proved that the caliphate in Baghdad was not strong enough to spread its sovereignty over Egypt. That was prelude to the eras of independence that were begun by Ahmed Ibn Toulon the founder of the Tulunid State.

The beginning of Independence Ages:

With the beginning of the Tulunid State Arabic Egypt begins a new era of independence, which provided the country with its own characteristic personality. The focus and sole purpose of the governor and Baghdad’s men was no longer just to satisfy the Caliph and his court. The king’s interest now focused on reforming the country’s deteriorating conditions and improving its economic and military powers since the king’s power was derived from the strength of his country.

Ibn Toloun began by stabilizing the inner cities. He succeeded in destroying the remains of Gaber El Modlegy’s revolt. Gaber’s cousin had joined the rebellion of Al Alawi Ahmed Ibn Taba and settled in Abu Mina between Alexandria and Baraka. However, the Tulunid soldiers chased the rebels and killed Alawi in Shaaban 225 HD/ 869 AD.

At the beginning Alexandria had a separate governor independent from Ahmed Ibn Toloun (Isaa Ibn Aby Dinar) then it was joined under Ahmed’s rule and he went there in 8 Ramadan 257/ 31 July 871 AD. He stayed there for about one month and appointed his son Al Abass governor. That meant that Alexandria retained its position as the second capital since it was the city of the crown prince. As proof that Ahmed Ibn Toloun took great care of Alexandria we note what he did when his son disobeyed him. Al Abass pretended that he was going out to Alexandria and from there he marched to Baraka and Tripoli where he declared a revolution. Consequently Ibn Toloun marched with a large army to Alexandria and stayed there in 268 HD/881-882 AD to supervise the military operations against Al Abbass in Baraka.

During his residence in Alexandria he renovated its walls, fortified its coast and renovated Alexandria’s famous lighthouse which had been demolished by the earthquake in 180 HD/ 796-797 AD and built on top of it a wooden dome to replace the old one. Khomaraway the son of Ibn Toloun ordered the digging of the Alexandria Gulf which had been filled up with earth in 359 HD/ 872 –873 AD. He also took great interest in the navy and the fleet and after him his son and that promoted the shipping industry in Alexandria. Marriott also was given much attention by Tulunid rulers.

Alexandria played an important role in the attempt to save the Tulunid State when it began to collapse. A group of Fostat soldiers wrote to Haroun Ibn Khomaraway after the death of his brother Abu El Asaker who was in Alexandria at the time and called him to the throne. His brother gathered a large number of the moors of the lake and marched with them to Fostat, but he was captured there in Shaaban 284 HD/ Sept 887 AD.

When the Abassids regained Egypt from the Tulunids, Eissa El Nowshary (the first new Abassid Caliph) assigned Ali Ibn Wahsodan to be Governor of Alexandria and El Mohager Ibn Taleeq as his assistant in 292 HD/ 904-905 AD. Ever since Abu Mansour Takeen became Governor in Shaaban 297 HD/ April 910 AD during the reign of the Caliph El Moktader the Fatimid danger in Morocco began to threaten Egypt and Alexandria. In 302 HD/914 AD the Fatimid soldiers arrived in Alexandria for the first time led by Hobassa Ibn Youssef. Hobassa had marched from Baraka in a large army and reached Alexandria in 8 Moharam / 4 June then left Alexandria for Fostat in Gomadi Akhar/December when he was defeated by Takeen’s forces. Alexandria began to be the center of all-important events because the Fatimid forces attacked it. As the new Fostat Governor Theka Al Awar took his post to march to Alexandria in Rabei Al Akhar 303 HD/October 915 AD where he remained for almost a year to supervise and inspect the city’s defence preparations and wait for news of the Fatimids.

During the following year Alexandria began to receive immigrants from Libya and Marakia who had fled from the attack of the Fatimid soldiers in Baraka, Hence Theka sent a number of brigadiers and their men to Alexandria to aid its barricade. However, the Fatimid attack against Egypt did not actually start except in 307 HD/919 AD, when the Fatimid forces came out from Tunisia led by Abu Kassem El Mahdi. As soon as news of their entrance into Libya and Marakia reached the Alexandrians they were genuinely disturbed and the upper social classes and those in higher positions who feared for their money, assets and their women fled from the city, together with the Sunnis who hated Shiites. El Mothafar Ibn Theka, the governor also fled when the Fatimids approached Alexandria and marched towards his father in Fostat. Thus the pioneers of the Fatimid forces entered Alexandria in 8 Safar 307HD/11 July 919 AD.

Following the arrival of the Fatimid infantry in Alexandria, the naval forces arrived led by Soliman Khadam. The Abassid Caliphate sent the Commander of the Tarsus forces from Syria Thaml El Khadem with his ships to fight the Fatimid fleet. The two fleets met in Rasheed in 17 Shawal 307 HD/ 14 March 919 AD. The battle ended in favor of the Abassid fleet, and a strong wind blew and destroyed many Fatimid ships. The Admiral of the Fatimid fleet was captured together with the captains of his ships and they were marched to Fostat where they were imprisoned after being displayed in a parade of triumph.

The Fatimid prince had to leave Alexandria for Fayoum then Baraka while the Fatimid Governor Ibn Baala fled. Thaml entered Alexandria in Moharem of 309 HD/ May 921 AD and avenged himself of its people who had co-operated with the Fatimids and ordered their exile to Rasheed.

At the same time the Fatimid Moroccans were threatening Egypt, the Moroccans who were working in the Egyptian army were paving the way for their brothers in Tunisia and Algiers. When later Mohamed Ibn Toghg Al Aksheed became the ruler of Egypt for the second time in 323 HD/935 AD, the Moroccans refused to serve him and marched to Sharkia led by Begkom the ruler of Fayoum and Habashy Ibn Ahmed. From there they marched to Alexandria and were followed by Begkom and his men. However, since the Egyptian Moroccan did not wish to confront Ibn Toghg, they decided to march to Baraka where they asked permission from the acting Fatimid Caliph to enter his country and asked for forces to enter Egypt in his name. Thus he was encouraged to send a campaign in 324HD/936AD.

The Fatimid Commander marched his force the Katamids who joined the Moroccans of Egypt in Baraka. They advanced towards Egypt and Mohamed Ibn Toghg Al Aksheed divided his forces in two groups and marched to meet them. The second group advanced towards Upper Egypt, while the Fatimid Army went to Alexandria led by Bagkom who succeeded in entering the city without much resistance. Ibn Toghg was quick to send more of his armies to Alexandria and the battle started in a site somewhere between Troga and Marriott Lake and ended in the defeat of the Moroccan army. El Hassan Ibn Toghg entered Alexandria and overcame the Fatimid soldiers there while Bagkom escaped to Baraka which was under Fatimid rule.

From 327HD/ 939AD until 358HD/969AD there is no mention of any hostile actions performed by the Fatimids against Egypt. Starting from 338HD/949 AD Egypt experienced consecutive economic crises. During those troubled times we have no news of Alexandria. It must have been badly affected by the low levels of the flood when the red Nile water did not reach the Gulf of Alexandria. In those dire circumstances Gawhar El Sakally (the Sicilian) advanced towards Egypt in Rabei El Awal 358HD/ Feb. 969 AD with a huge army. By the time he reached Alexandria, Egypt’s downfall was certain, and with the building of Cairo, Egypt became an imperialist caliphate, and Alexandria began to flourish.

Alexandria During the Fatimid and Ayyubid Periods

(358-567 HD/ 969-1171 AD)

Prof. Dr. Ahmed Mokhtar El Abbady

Introduction

The Fatimid State constitutes a state and caliphate of Shiites and Ismailis that was established in the furthest west by the moorish tribes of Kattama and Sunhaga at the end of third century HD (297HD/ 909 AD). It spread its influence over most of the north west Arab countries and some Western Islands in the Mediterranean like Sicily, Malta, Garba and Kaosara etc. At the same time it directed its attention eastwards aiming to own Egypt for its unique geographical position at the heart of the Arab world. Conquering Egypt would easily enable it to assume control over the old Islamic centres like Mecca, El Madinah, Damascus, and even Baghdad the capital of its enemy; the Sunni Abassid caliphate.

The Fatimid campaigns on the western borders of Egypt started since the time of their first Caliph Abdallah El Mahdy and his son Mohamed El Kaem. It is noted that the conquest route taken for this was considered unique because Egypt was always invaded from the east by way of Gaza, Rafah, El Farma and Belbeis. It had never before opened its western borders except during the Pharaonic era during the 22^nd and 23^rd dynasties when the country was invaded by Libyans through the Fayoum area.

The Fatimids sent three military expeditions to invade Egypt. The first one was in 301 HD/913 AD, the second in 307 HD/ 919 AD, and the third in 324 HD/936 Ad. Those military expeditions were undertaken simultaneously by sea and land. Each expedition lasted two years at least. During such campaigns the conquerors used to occupy Alexandria and some regions of mid Egypt like El Fayoum and Al Ashmoneyeen. They lived on what food and supplies they usurped from the natives. The three military expeditions failed because the Abassid Caliphate at the time was strong enough to confront them. Moeness El Khadem the Commander of the Abassid Caliph El Moktader drove off the first and second expeditions. The Turkish Abassid Commander Mohamed Ibn Toghg El Akhsheed the first prince of the Akhsheed Sate in Egypt overcame the third expedition.

The Fatimids were distracted from invading Egypt during the rest of the Caliphate of Mohamed El Kaem the Fatimid, and during the reign of his son El Mansour Ismail 334-341 HD/ 945 – 952 AD). At the time they were facing a revolution of dissidents led by Aby Yazeed El Khargy, and his followers the Zanateyeen.

During the reign of the Fatimid Caliph El Moez Ledin Allah Aby Tameem Maad (341 – 365 HD/ 952 – 975 AD) they carried out a fourth though successful attempt to invade Egypt under the leadership of Gowhar El Sakally. He was originally a Mamluk from the coasts of Dalmasia, at the beginning he settled in the Sicilian Alley in Palermo city north of the island which was under the protectorate of the Fatimid State, thus the name El Sakally (the Sicilian). He joined the service of the Caliph El Moez and was promoted until he became his commander and secretary as well. Egypt after the death of its ruler Aby El Mesk Cafour Al Akhsheed was ailing from political and economic crises as a result of the low levels of the water in the Nile for several consecutive years, and the absence of a strong ruler who could control and settle the affairs of the country. The Abassid Caliphate was too weak this time to send forces to protect Egypt. Moreover several Shiite countries emerged and controlled many regions of the Arab and Islamic world like Beny Boya El Zaydeya in Iraq and Persia, the Twelfth Hamdaneyeen in Halab and north of Syria, the Ismaili Karameta south of Syria.

There is no doubt that the presence of those Shiite forces was a barrier against the arrival of any Sunni Abassid Caliphate forces to Egypt to protect it from the Shiite Fatimid. In addition to that the Fatimid Caliph El Moez Ledin Allah was well aware of the circumstances in Egypt from his heralds and spies and even from important Egyptian officials like Jacob Ibn Kalas who went to him in person and informed him of the deteriorating conditions in Egypt. El Moez prior to his sending his armies to Egypt said: “I am preoccupied with letters that come to me from the east and the west that I answer in my own handwriting…. I vow that if Gowhar went out alone he can conquer Egypt”.

EL Moez prepared to conquer Egypt, he therefore collected large sums of money and dug wells and built shelters on the road to Alexandria for the soldiers to rest during their progress towards Alexandria. Then together with Gohar El Sakaly as their commander prepared his armies, their weapons and equipment. El Moez’s poet Mohamed Ibn Hanea El Andalusy described that great army in a poem that begins as follows:

I saw with my own eyes what I have been hearing

 I thought it more horrifying than doomsday

 When they left they blocked the horizon

 And the sun set from where it rose

The Fatimid army marched from Kayrawan in 14 Rabie Akhar 358 HD/ Feb. 969 AD accompanied by some battle ships. They succeeded in capturing Alexandria, and then continued their progress to Giza, then crossed the Mokhada in the Nile and overcame the Akhsheed resistance, which was prepared to fight them at the eastern bank of the Nile. Following that they entered Fostat victorious and wrote a proclamation to the people of Egypt declaring wherein a reform programme, which they were to enforce, also outlining their future policy. When news of the army’s victory reached El Moez he was ecstatic, his state was depicted in a poem by his poet Mohamed Ibn Hanea Al Andalusy,

El Abbass clan did you conquer Egypt?

Tell them it is done

Gowhar has overcome Alexandria

With good tidings and victory preceding him

Gowhar camped with his army on the site where he later established Cairo. It was a sandy plain situated north east of Fostat. He chose that site for military reasons. He projected to protect the triple cities of Fostat, El Askar and Kataee from the raids of their cousins the Karameta of south Syria. Perhaps such military characteristics and its strong security system as a capital of the Caliphate gave it the description “Cairo the well guarded”. Gowhar built El Azhar Mosque in 359 HD and it was inaugurated for prayer on Friday 7^th Ramadan in 361 HD.

We should note here the story of the crew and the bells in relation to naming Cairo. According to El Makreezy it was said that Gowhar wanted to build Cairo. He brought fortune-tellers and ordered them to predict a lucky fortune. They did what he requested and put wooden poles around the walls and between each two poles they tied a rope with bells. They told the workers if the bells moved they should drop whatever mud and pebbles they were carrying. It chanced that a crew stood on one of the ropes and the bells moved, and the workers threw what mud and pebbles they had in their hands. It seemed that the planet Mars was in their path, this phenomenon was called by fortune tellers the conqueror of the astronomy so they named the city “Cairo” meaning conqueror.

This story is fictitious, and is belied by the historian Aboul Hassan  El Masoudi who was deceased about 12 years before the founding of Cairo (346 HD/ 956 AD). El Masoudi mentioned a similar story in his book, “Morog Al Thahab” “Fields of Gold” (p. 215).  Moreover, it is inferred from historical writings that El Moez gave the city this name because he believed she will conquer the world or the opposing Abassid Caliphate.

That is how Egypt occupied, after the Fatimid conquest, a leading  position in the Arab World, after it had been a dependent state under the rule of the caliphate of Damascus and Baghdad. It now housed the Caliphate of a large and strong state whose power extended to the surrounding countries from the east and the west. The Fatimid State merged into the Egyptian life and helped unify the Egyptian nation, and mature its personality, because it was a religiously tolerant state, the Moslems, Copts and Jews were treated as equals. This helped the blending of the different Egyptian factions and helped the flourish of the economic and artistic life in the country. Many of the monuments of the Fatimids in the Islamic museums such as pottery, glass and fabrics were labelled with the names of their producers and some of them were Christian. We also hear of non Moslem employees who reached very high positions like Manshaa the Jewish, and Eissa Ibn Nastorous the Christian who was given a position in the ministry.

It is well known that the Caliph El Aziz Bellah Ibn El Moez married a Christian woman according to the church of Costantinople. She bore him his son El Hakem Be Amrallah and his daughter Set El Molk. She enjoyed great power to the extent that the Caliph appointed her two brothers as patriarchs, one in Alexandria and the other in Jerusalem. The Fatimids celebrated national and Christian feasts like El Noroz Feast, (11^th September), El Ghetas, Khamis El Ahd and Wafaa El Nile. In their celebrations of Islamic feasts they surpassed the traditional methods of celebration. They celebrated the birthdays of the prophet and his family, and they moved the remains of some of them to Egypt. The most important of these feasts were the celebration of Prophet Mohamed’s birthday 12 Rabei El Awal, and the birthday of El Hussein and El Sayeda Zeinab. There was also the celebration of spotting the crescent of the month of Ramadan and the holy month itself, the night of Israa and Meirag on the 27^th of the month of Ragab (the night of Prophet Mohamed’s ascension to the seven heavens), and mid Shaaban night of the change of the direction of the Kibla (direction to which Moslems turn in prayer) to the Kaaba instead of Jerusalem.  Such celebrations were accompanied by selling candy, toys and special lollipops.

The Fatimids devised all those traditions, which gave Egypt an atmosphere of happiness and festivities that survives up to this day. Thus Egyptians loved the Fatimids and loved their doings. Although their state was first established in Morocco, yet we find that some historians like El Makreezy and Aby Shama called their Caliphs the Egyptian Caliphs and they called the Caliphate the Egyptian State.

Although the Egyptians loved the Fatimids, yet they did not abide by their Shiite doctrine, for the Egyptian people are conservative by nature especially when it touches religious beliefs. Thus Egypt remained a follower of the Sunni doctrine.

During the Fatimid era Egypt was divided into 4 large states:

1-Kous, which was the greatest state as its ruler governed all Egypt.

2-El Sharqeya, whose ruler governed Belbeis, Kalyoub and Ashmoun.

3-El Gharbeya, whose ruler governed El Mahala, Menouf and Abyar.

4-Alexandria whose ruler governed the entire Beheira region.

 

Those four rulers received from the treasury a precious robe made of silk and gold to the value of about one thousand Dinars. Each Caliph put on his robe for the ceremony of opening the Gulf during the flooding of the Nile.

Despite the fact that Alexandria, during the Islamic ages, lost its political status as the capital of Egypt and the transfer of the capital to Fostat and Cairo, yet the dangers threatening Egypt from the Mediterranean Sea continued to be a reality. The position of Alexandria in Egypt as Gamal Hamdan says is symbolic of Egypt’s position in the Mediterranean (Quoted from his book Egypt’s Character & Genius).

Accordingly Egypt during the Fatimid Age became the most important naval base to the East of the Mediterranean on both the military and economic fronts. In its factories Egyptian battleships were built and loaded with weapons to invade hostile countries.

Concerning the economic aspect, Alexandria combined the advantages of agriculture, industry and trade. It was famous for cultivating oil producing crops and extracting oil from sesame and olives, in addition to manufacturing soap, wax, wine, glass and crystal artifacts as well as delicate linen fabrics which manufacturers in various countries used to imitate forge and sell as being products of Alexandria. The people from Italian cities like Genewa, Piza and Venice had to ask permission from the Fatimid State in order to be able to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The fact that the Island of Sicily belonged to the Fatimid State helped in increasing the trade activities of Alexandria in the Mediterranean and it became a world trade centre.

However, Alexandria’s importance resulted from its unique characteristic among other Egyptian cities, with its landmarks, position, culture and dialect etc. everlasting across the ages:

First:

During the Fatimid age the streets of Alexandria retained their old plan, straight lines, width and extension to the east, west, north and south intersecting in right angles like a chessboard. In addition to the lighthouse (Pharos) which was built in ancient times during the rule of Ptolemy Philadelphos to guide ships and travelers and considered as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Arab and foreign nomads and historians who visited Alexandria during the Fatimid age described it extensively. Presently on the site of the lighthouse we have Kayetbay Castle at the eastern port. Then there was Pompeii Pillar, built during the Byzantine age in commemoration of the martyrs of Christianity in Alexandria. This pillar still stands loftily and its name is given to the cemetery located outside Bab El Amoud or Bab Sodra to the south of the city. We also have the Gulf of Alexandria or its canal that connected it to the Nile ever since ancient times (the Canopian branch) used for trade. The Fatimid Caliphs like El Hakem Be Amrallah took great care to clean it and remove mud residues just like his ancestors did. The late Mahmoud Pasha Al Falaky in his book “Old Alexandria” (p. 145 – 147) states that the canal used to occupy the same site as the Shedia canals  that occupied the site of the present Mahmoudeya Canal.

Secondly:

Alexandria had a unique geographical position allowing it to form close ties with the countries of the Mediterranean, to the extent that the Greeks and Romans regarded it as a separate entity from Egypt and described it by saying” Alexandria ad Egyptum” meaning Alexandria that is situated close to Egypt. This is a truthful description that is unique of Alexandria up till now. In addition to the difficulty of its communication with internal capitals as the desert road was long, and the agricultural road was difficult to cross during Nile flood since it was filled with mud. That situation made it rely on itself and the strength of its walls and forts, to the extent that it is said that when Amr Ibn El Aas reached it, he was overwhelmed by the strength of its walls and forts. So he prayed with his Moslem soldiers asking God to aid him in conquering Alexandria.

It is noted that that remote location of the city of Alexandria encouraged some rebels of the Fatimid State to resort to seeking refuge within its forts. Examples of this can be witnessed in the revolution of El Awhad son of the Major General of the Armies Badr El Gamally who rebelled against his father in 477 HD/1084 AD and was defeated. There was also the Revolution of Nezar the eldest son of Caliph El Montaser Bellah in Alexandria against his father’s Minister Al Afdal Ibn Badr El Gamally because he set his younger brother Abal Kassem Ahmed El Mestaally on the throne of the Caliphate after the death of his father. Al Afdal had to attack Alexandria to end the uprising and kill Nezar and his supporters in 487 HD/ 1094 AD.

Thirdly:

Alexandria had certain unique western characteristics due to its geographical position, and its close relationship by land and sea with Morocco and Andalusia. This is the reason for its appelation “Gate to the West”.  During the Fatimid age most of the people of Alexandria were true to the doctrine of the Imam of the immigration house Malek Ibn Anass Al Ashbahy which was prevalent in Morocco and Andalusia. This can be explained by the fact that the Fatimids ever since they entered Egypt had declared that they would leave people free to have their own religious beliefs. The Fatimid State was content with making the Shiite doctrine the official doctrine of the State and its official employees. It did not force it upon the Egyptian people. Accordingly Alexandria continued to be a centre of the Malek Sunni besides the doctrine of Imam Mohamed Ibn Idriss El Shafei whose doctrine was common in most Egyptian homes.  Alexandria was the first Egyptian city to establish Sunni schools at the end of the Fatimid era, like El Hafezia School established by Radwan Ibn Walkashy, the Minister of Caliph El Hafez Al Fatimi in 532 HD/ 1137AD for the Malky scholar Aby El Taher Ibn Auf Al Zohary who died in 581 HD 1185 AD at 96 years of age.

There was also the Salafia School built by Al Adel Aboul Hassan Ali Ben Sallar in 544 HD/ 1149 AD. He was the Minister of the Fatimid Caliph El Zafer Ismail. It was the school of the Scholar El Shafei Aby Taher Ahmed Ibn Mohamed El Salafy Al Asbahany who died in 576 HD/1186 AD at the age of 100 years. It is reported that he used to say:

I am one of the Hadith safe keepers

And they are the best

I’ve lived till 90

And hope to reach 100

Fortunately for he him he lived as he hoped and one of his most important writings was the “Dictionary of Travelling” in which he translated the essays of many scientists from Alexandria, and other scientists he met during his travels (published by Dr Ihsan Abbas).

We also note the western effect on the markets of the city and its districts like the Moroccan market and Zanket El Setat, Zenka is a Moroccan word meaning “street”, it is used only in Alexandria. We also find the Karmouz district and the word “Karmouz” means in Moroccan prickly pear or Indian fig, which was cultivated in that Alexandrine district. The local dialect of Alexandria had some Moroccan influence as well. For example the use of the plural for the singular saying “we eat, we drink” instead of “I eat and I drink” and so forth. We note also that there was a famous mosque in the city frequented by ascetic scientists from Morocco who lived and died in Alexandria. Unfortunately of all these monuments which were built in the Fatimid Age no longer exist. The only one remaining is the shrine of the Malki scholar Aby Bakr Mohamed Ibn Walid Al Tartoushi from the city of Tortosa in north east Spain. He left Spain for Egypt and lived in Alexandria and worked as a teacher and wrote several books, the most important of which was “The Light of Kings” which he dedicated to the Minister El Maamoun Al Bataehy during the reign of Caliph Amr El Fatimi. It was a book about Sultans’ mannerisms while discussing the war strategies and maneuvers used by Andalusian armies during the Umayyid reign. It is the only text we have on that subject. There is also a book that was published in Cairo at a more recent date in 1354 HD/1934 AD and was translated into Spanish by the Spanish Orientalist M Alarcon entitled “Lampara de Los Principes”

Tartoushi also wrote another book entitled “Accidents and Novelties” which includes useful information about the social life in Andalusia and Jerusalem and was published by Mohamed El Taleby in Tunisia in 1959. It  was reprinted in Cairo by Sharayoun in 1991. El Tartoushi died in Alexandria in 520 HD/ 1126 AD and his shrine lies in the street named Bab Akhdar (the northwestern gate of the city) in the Gomrok district. His mosque used to be situated outside Bab El Bahr but now no traces of it remain.

We should note here the Attarine Mosque (or El Geyoushi Mosque) in Alexandria. It was originally a broken down old mosque and when the Commander of the Armies Badr El Gamally the Minister of the Fatimid Caliph El Mostanser Bellah visited Alexandria in 477 HD / 1084 AD, he ordered its rebuilding. The marble sign announcing its rebuilding still remains below the minaret with the name and date of the builder.

Alexandria hosted huge numbers of scientists and poets from Morocco during the Fatimid Age. One of them was the poet Abal Salt Omeya Ibn Abdel Aziz Al Dany (his name was derived from Denia in east Andalusia). He lived in Alexandria then moved to Cairo during the time of Minister Al Afdal Ibn Badr El Gamally. There was also the grammarian Abel Kassem Ali Ibn Gaffer known as Ibn El Kattae the Sicilian who immigrated from the Island of Sicily to Alexandria during the reign of the Fatimid Amir in 495 HD/ 1101AD and was chosen by the Minister Al Afdal as a tutor for his children in Cairo. Ibn El Kattae has many writings on language, grammar,  rhymes and the history of Sicily. The remains of his writings were studied by the Italian Orientalist A Ritztano. Another immigrant from Sicily to Alexandria was Abdel Rahman Ibn Aby Bakr the Sicilian known as Ibn El Fahham 516 HD/ 1122AD) who wrote a book on the seven readings which he called El Tagweed "modulation").

We should not leave out the Moroccan herald Al Masoudi Mohamed Ibn Tomert 522HD/1128AD, who studied in the east, during his return to his country he resided for a while in Alexandria where he attended the scientific meetings of El Tartoushi. Yet he did not like some of the habits of Alexandria so he tried to change them, which infuriated the public who kept blocking his way to the meetings of Aby Bakr El Tartoushi. When the latter missed him, he searched for him and went to him and asked him why he absented himself from their meetings. Ibn Tomert told him about the rebels and his wish to go to Morocco. They exchanged farewells and Ibn Tomert returned to his homeland and was named El Mahdy and began spreading the mission of monotheism which ended in the destruction of El Morabeteen State and the establishment of El Mowahedeen (monotheists) State in Morocco and Andalusia.

Fourthly:

Alexandria during the Fatimid Era prospered and its upper classes and merchants lived in luxury.  Alexandria abounded with palaces and lovely gardens and parks with large fountains that inspired its poets to describe it and express its beauty and charm. An example of that is a poem by an Alexandrine poet named El Fath Nasrallah Ibn Kolakess 567 HD/1171 AD describing a lofty palace of Bany Kholeif in the Raml area (perhaps present Mustafa Pasha), the poem says:

A palace in the breeze

Where gardens revealed their secret

The fog formed a headscarf

And settled in Camphor land

His description of the Alexandria lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the World reads:

A home that reached Gemini in its height

As if it harbored a nest of eagles

Still lit with the fire of brilliance

Becoming a flag with its fiery head

The poet Zafer El Hada describes the Gulf of Alexandria saying:

Water seems in the Gulf as if a snake

Whose speed engraves the sand

The poet Takeya El Sorreya 569HD/1172 AD says describing one of the gardens of Alexandria:

The flowers’ cheeks are reddened

Its veil loosened from its shyness

The young daffodil whose hyacinth

Yearns to understand what its tulip is saying

There are other poets who were described in detail by the Alexandrine poet Abdel Aleem El Kabary in his book “the poets of Alexandria during the Islamic Ages”

Finally the Fatimid State came to an end by the hands of Salah El Din El Ayoubi who was a Sunni fearing the establishment of a Shiite revolution in the country. That is why he tried a singular experience in one of the mosques when the Andalusian scientist El Yesei Ibn Hazem Al Ghafeqy El Gayany, who was a close friend to Salah El Din volunteered to herald the Abassid and got on the pulpit with soldiers around him ready to protect and defend him from the Shiites. It was then that Salah El Din ordered the spread of the herald mission for the Abassid Caliph El Mostadee Benour Allah on all the pulpits of Cairo in El Moharam 567 HD/ 1171 AD.

It is worth noting here that some historians like Emad El Asfahani and Aby Shama mentioned that the first oration of the Abassid Caliph was held in Alexandria first, then to Egypt and Cairo. Perhaps that was due to the fact that Alexandria was a Sunni city by nature. Thus the Fatimid Period ended calmly. The Fatimid Caliph El Added at the time was ill and died three days after that incident without knowing that the Fatimid State had officially ended.

It is noted that that political calm that accompanied the end of the Fatimid State did not prevent the occurrence of economic instability in the official currency of Egypt, the red Dinar (i.e. the golden Dinar) and the Nakra (i.e. the silver Derham). El Makreezy states that when Salah El Din ordered the minting of a new currency with the name of the Caliph of Baghdad on it, the gold and silver disappeared from Egypt and whoever succeeded in obtaining a red Dinar was considered to have crossed the gates of heaven.

In any case the Fatimid Caliph El Added died in 10^th of Moharam in 567 HD/ 1171 AD i.e. the Fatimid State ended on the same day when Imam El Hussein was martyred.

The History of Alexandria During the Mamluk Dynasties.

By: professor Dr. El Sayed Abdel Aziz Salem.

First : The history of Alexandria During the El Baharia Mamluk State.

The El Bharia mamluk period is viewed as being the golden era of the city of Alexandria. During this period the city was unrivalled in its architectural development, consequent to an unprecedented economic prosperity. The city became the point of focus of the entire world. This state ensued after the weakness that befell the city of Damietta lost its   military and economic importance, its walls were demolished and its     outlet to the sea was filled up .Thus ended  its role as a port frequented by commercial ships.

Alexandria, thus became the greatest port in all of Egypt, and the most important commercial center in the Islamic world.

The Sultans poured geat attention on the ciy, and to protect it they    built fortresses and towers. Al Ashraf Shaban turned the city into a prefector- ship after it had been conquered on the 21 of Al Mohanan ,by Peter De Loznion known as the "Cypriot Conquest", the name refers to the Island of Cyprus were the remaining crusaders had settled in order to implement their military agressions against the mamluks of Egypt and Syria.

In the year 767 of El  Hegira (Islamic calendar) 1365 A.D. the Sultan Al Ashraf Shaban turned his prefectorial - ship   into a governorate.  It was therefore governed by a deputy chosen from the princes. Alexandria thus glorified and flourished, its wealth increased trading with the east and west, a situation to which the moslem and christian visitors testified. Ibn Batouta was not miserly in his description of the state of the city, saying that it is well preserved, with stately constructions, beautiful  weather ,   full of wonders and fulfils all that the eye may desire.

Construction in Alexandria flourished and varied, hotels, agencies, industries could were found. On the other hand the spirit of jihad prevailed in the from of fortresses and pikes, the  luminosity of scientific movement such as the establishments for discussions of the Prophet’s Hadith, which in reality were schools for the teaching of Islamic Theology, and interpretation of the Hadith (Sayings of the Prophet). But it is admissable to state that the economic revival of Alexandria was due to the exorbitant fees enforced by the state on commodities, and goods brought by traders from the foriegners.

When the city of Aka fell in the hands of the Mamluks, the papacy tried to negotiate with the European states an embargo on commercial trading with Egypt so as to cut off all her financial sources.

Trading with Arabs in any commodity that could be used for armament was prohibited. Wood, and iron being the basic materials necessary for constructing ships and war machinery were banned. Yet these endeavors all failed, since, states and European countries that had commercial activities with the east, were unable to dispense with those products ,reaching them via one route, that of Alexandria. These countries kept trying to win the grace of the sultans of Egypt in every possible manner. Entering into commercial treaties that were very profitable to Egypt. These countries made sure they were represented in Egypt at a Councilor level to maintain the commercial interests of their countries in Egypt. They built special hotels in Egypt where their traders would be domiciliated when in Egypt. The papal decision prohibiting trade with Egypt found some supporters, yet the city of Alexandria did in no way forfeit her commercial importance in these periods of upheaval. 

 European envoees to the sultans of Egypt increased. Embassadors sent by the king of Aragon, the king of France the Republics of Venice, and Genoa and the Empire of Byzantium,the kings of Bulgaria and the valley of the Volga.

Nevertheless, scientific movements progressed during this age due to the presence of Islamic theologists from all over the globe  arriving from  the Fatimide empire. This can be compared to the extensive arrivals perceived by the “Moroccan Establishment” and their schools in the days of Salah El Din, and the arrival of large numbers of scholars from Morocco and Andalusia to Alexandria. We specify groups of scholars who have streets named after them in Alexandria, such as abo Aldallah mohamed Bin Soleiman Al Moafry Al Shatby (died the year 662 of the Hegira) and also El Abbas Ahmad Bin Omar Bin Mohamed Al Ansary ElMorsi (died in the year 686 of the Hegira).

The credit for the prospering of Alexandria during the El Bahria Mamluk period is due to three sultans, namely : Al Zaher Bebars, El Nasser Mohamed Bin Kalasum and Al Ashraf Shabaan. Amog them, Al Zaher Bebars was the first to be interested in Alexandria, he visited the city four times, each time leaving behind him an imprint of his visit. During his first visit be ordered the covering of the western mosque, repaired its architecture and lighting, all this from his own personal money. He also seized the opportunity while while in the city to visit two of the most iminent soufists, sheikh abo El Kassem Bin Mansour Bin Yehia Al Maliky El Sakamday known as Al Kabary (died in the year 662 of the Hegira) El Kabary advised him to fortify the the city and to repair its walls. The second was Sheikh Abo Abdallah. Mohamed Bin Soluman al Maafry Al Shatby (died in the year 672 of the hegira). During his second visit in the year 664 H. Bebars ordered the cleaing  of the gulf of Alexandria from sandy sediments which were about to block its entrance.

In his third visit in the year 668 he ordered the erection of one hundred catapult on the walls of Alexandria in preparation for the confrontation with the crusaders under the leadership of Louis  the Nineth of France. For Bebars was informed of their preparedness to invade Egypt by way of Alexandria. But this expedition which was directed towards Egypt was deviated to Tunisia, this took place during the time  of El Mostasser Al Farsi. During Bebars fourth visit, in the year 672 of the Hegira, he ordered the restoration of the lighthouse, for coinciding with his visit parts of the pharos were demolished. The mosque that was built by Ibn Touloun at the top of the light house by  king El Kamel, was in some parts destroyed which led Bebars to constructt a mosque in place of the old dome.

The Sultan El Malek al Nasser Mohamed Bin Kalawon continued the same policy as that of Baybars in his interest in Alexandria. During his second prefectoriship (698 - 708 H) an earth quake took place which hit many of the monuments of the city. The most important of these was the light house, its walls and forts. The wall lost 46 pieces and 17 towers, the sultan wrote to his prefect to reconstruct them (703 H) (1303 AD). The light house was repaired during the period of prince Rokn El Din Bebars. It seems the lighthouse was strongly hit,  repair works were of no avail, and a part of it was again demolished as mentioned by Ibn Batouta in his travels ( 725 H) (1325AD) similar references were given by Ibin Batouta. El Nasser Mohamed also showed interest in the re-digging of the gulf of Alexandria in the year 710 H as the old waterway was filled up with sand. It is said that the prefect of Alexandria met with the sultan, and informed him of the benefiicial outcome of this opening up. First crops carried in ships would sail along it to the city increasing the official income. Second - construction on both banks can be made as well as famswhich would increase taxes. Third, the inhabitants would gain though the planting of their orchards ,and poable water would be abundent.

The sultan was thrilled by what he heard and mandated prince Bader El Dine and Bactoute to proceed with the necessary works.

The sultan ordered the diggers to start work, about the forty thousand man were enslaved to terminate the work. The gulf was connected to the Rosetta brauch. Its advantages were great and the population of Alexandria stopped drinking from water tanks, while construction  started on both banks of the gulf. One thousand Feddans were planted and more than six hundred irrigation ditches gave rise to crops such as caulcasia and sesame and more than a thousand fields were now made available in Alexandria. Docks were built on the sides of the gulf, the ground was paved and thirty bridges were built across the gulf. A sort of hotel (khan) were people could stay was also built (known as the Persian palace). This gulf utilized up to the year 770 H. at this date its water dried up, it became filled with sand, most of the gardens and orchards were damaged and many villages disappeared. In the month of Moharam of the year 767 of the Hegira Alexandria was assaulted by sea by the Cypriots led by Pierre de Loznion.

The fleet was seen in the territorial waters on the 21 of the month of El Moharam of the year 767 of the H. (October 1765 AD) the Alexandrians thought at first that it was a commercial fleet from venice. It was too late when they realized that they were crusador ships. The Cypriots attacked the city walls from the sea side up to the center of the city and  occupying it for a few days. They raveged the city, tore down houses, hotels and palaces, but did not touch the mosques in fear of the revenge of Muslims yet they burned churches. Al Ashraf Shaaban took great care to rebuild all that was damaged, but the experience was painful and the mamluks could not easily forget. This increased the importance of Alexandria in their eyes, the first act undertaken by Al Ashraf was to change its status into a deputizatiohn, that is a deputy would rule the city in his place, who would use all his efforts to fortify the city, and reorganize it both militarly and administratively.

Sultan Al Ashraf visited Alexandria in the year 1369- B68 AD and entered the city from Al Rasheed gate in broad day light and was met with honours. This show of esteem pleased him, crossing the city he passed by the mosque of Abi AlAbas and the residence of Ibn Al Coayar, he passed through the gates of the city, saw the sea and the harbour where the foreigner ships lay. All the population of the city came out to welcome the sultan hanging colored flags, he threw many gold pieces for the people to pick up until he reached the sultan’s residence.

He entered though the green Gate, walked to the palace of armament, saw large arms from previous periods. He gave his instruction to build a hall in his name, his orders were executed and mumerous arms were kept in this hall .

The details of the sultan’s visit and the monuments described during his passage in the streets of the city were of help to us in identifying important sites, of the city mostly those besides the green gate..

The residence of the sultan was a wonder of the world, a great residence  which was constructed by sultans each adding parts to it, the frist part constructed  by Al Mokawkas, followed by a second part by Gohar Al Motafke and finally a third part by Salah El Din Bin Ayoub. The fouth part was added by Al Nasser Farag Bin Barkouk. The palace had pillars of colouxed marble, decorations and beautiful gardens and orchards, and all that the heart could desire,  overlooked the sea, to be inhabited by no one less than a Sultan.

The History of Alexandria during the period of the Circasian Mamluks

The Circasion Mamluks enveloped Alexandria their care and interest. Among the first of these Mamluks was the Sultan Al Nasser Farag Ben Barkouk who visited the city in the year 1411 AD, in a great parade diescribed by the Egyptian historian Ibn Ayas in his book “Ingenuity of Flower” Ibda Al Zohour”. As for the sultan Al Ashraf Bersbai, be was greatly interested in the Naserist Gulf, which had dried up, and only flood water passed in it, so that most of the orchards of Alexandria had turned into a wasteland, and many villages on both banks were in ruins. Al Ashraf Bresbai gave directives to prince Garbash El Karimi known by the name of the “Lover” to dig it up. Prince Garbash gathered 875 men and they undertook diging work on april 22/1423. Work lasted for about ninety days and terminated on 20th of July of the year 1423. The New canal was named Al Ashrafia after the name of the Sultan. But waterflow in this canal did not go on for long and was soon filled up with sand and navigation became impossible during the reign of king Al Ashraf Abo El Nasr Kayet Bey. Alexandria enjoyed much prosperity, the city became a market where goods from the east and west accumulated in great quantities. It became also a center for the exchange of eastern and western merchandize. Ships arrived at the harbour in fleets, each consisting of eight ships, these would be distributed amongst the tradesmen after paying the sums imposed by the deputy of Alexandria the traders would then go to their hotels, which were numerous. These were huge and sqware in form, resembling forts. Their lower floor consisted of shops disbursed along the center space, Which was surrounded by gardens filled with all kinds of trees. These hotels were state-owned and set at the disposal of these foreign traders. The residents were forbidden to go out at night, they were also not allowed to run the streets during Friday prayers : These hotels were divided among the different races. The venetians were alocated two hotels, those from Geneva had one, those from florence one, other hotels were allocaled to the Tartars, Mauritaniuns, Greeks, Turks, French and others. Circasian Mamlukes became immensely rich because they monopolised the sale of spices and set the prices they desired. Monopoly reached its peak during the period of Al Ashraf Bersbai who in the year 1428 issued a decree forbidding the purchase of spices except from the Sultan’s stores. He also imposed exhorbitant fees on imports and exports, this led to great increase in the prices of eastern goods. These monopolies gave rise to the exasperation of the foreign traders who complained to the Sultan Farag Ben Barkouk from this injustice. The Sultan ordered ceasing of  unjust payments. The traders from Venice also protested through their representative in Alexandria and others  reacted by raising the prices of European commodities sent to Egypt.

Thus during this perood prosperity reigned in Egypt. The Historian Ibn Ayas  describes the sultan’s parade by saying. “The sultan entered the city through the Rachid gate, and came out thuough the sea gate, and resided in the sultanic camp besides the coast, beauthil ornaments were spread, his parade proceeded until he went out from the sea gate. An old custom was that once the sultan entered the city of Alexandria all the gates of the city would be opened and set on the ground until the sultan departs from the city. But sultan Qayat Bey refused to abide by this custom and ordered the gates to remain in place.”.

Ibn Ayas goes on to say that the sultan chose the site of the old light house to build a huge tower which exists up to now and is known as the tower of The Sultan,  celebrated two years latter the termination of the construction of this tower.

Prosperity led to the construction of numerous buildings among the most important   is the mosque of Abi El Abbas El Morsi erected at the external of the sea - gate besides the Sheik’s grave, built in 1307 AD from money collected from the head of the traders of Alexandria Sheikh Zein El Din Rem Alkotn, the mosque was renovated several times, until a new mosque was constructed during the time of the ex-king Fouad .

Other mosques were constructed in the same vicinity, most important being the mosque of sheikh Yacout Bin abdallah Al Habashi Sheikh Al Boseiry owner of the Daar. During that period many educational estabistments were constructed, the most important were “Daar El Hadith Al Takriti”, Daar El Hadith Al Nabihia the first establishment, “daar” still conserves its  plaque on which is engraved,” In the name of God the Clement, Mosques belong to god, do not pray to any one but god” This Holy mosque and the establishment of the teachings of the hadith, “prophet’s Sayings” are presented as wakf to the purpose of reading God’s book and respecting the hadith by he who hopes for the clemence of God, mamely abdel Latif Ben Rachid El Takrith.

By the end of the ninth century of the Hegira a grave incident occured which affected the history of all of Egypt in general and Alexandria in particular, namely the success of the Portugese in the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope. In the year 1478 AD Bartholomio Diaz sailed parallel to the west coast of Africa proceeding southward until in December of that year he reached the soutbern tip of the continent which he named Cape of Good Hope. This started a new era in commerce with the east, before the end of the Hegira century the world recognized a much cheaper new commercial market competing with the Egyptian, consequently European countries who dealt with Egypt turned to the other market. Egyptian economy suffered greatly and Egypt suffered due to the control of the Portuguese Armada led by Vasco – da Gama of the commercial route connecting, Egypt with India, and the armada’s blocking the entrance to the Red Sea to prevent Egyptian ships from sailing towards the Indian ocean. Thus the Portuguese ensured their sovereignty of the spice markets.

This economic deterioration affected Alexandria’s prosperity, its blossoming orchards turned into waste due to the  lack of Nile water  in addition to the deviation of foreign traders towards European markets. When  epidemics spread during the tenth century of the Hegira. Alexandria was badly affected,and its inhabitants were greatly minimized. Ambassador of Al Qashtas Pedro Martyr described this situation saying, houses were abandoned, streets became empty, and filled with earth and, Alexandria was facing ruin (devastation). The Othoman invasion of Egypt provided the ending to this tragedy. Alexandria lost its ancient status, its buildings  shrank to the coastal strip leading to the island pharos. Part of the city came to be leuown as the Arab city.

Alexandria During the Period of the Ottoman Conquest to the End of the Reign of Ismail

By Prof. Dr. Omar Abdel Aziz Omar.

Alexandria was one of the most important Egyptian cities, and reflected all Egyptian events in the modern age. Since its establishment Alexandria witnessed long periods of prosperity, development and expansion. Then it proceeded rapidly towards decline. For since the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517and up to the beginning of the nineteenth century the city was at the point shedding its last breath. But fate dictated that Alexandria reinvigorates dusts off underdevelopment, and sluggishness. The city raced against time to catch up with the world civilization, from the end of the rule of Ismail, and the start of the rule of Mohamed Ali.

The coming pages deal with the history of Alexandria during this era ,which I shall divide into several phases each with its special attributes. Demonstrating the social, economic and structural that has occurred during the 19^th century. These changes that characterized Alexandria rendered the city worthy of follow-up and examination.

Alexandria During the Ottoman Period:

Alexandria deteriorated during the Ottoman period, and became a small village, when it was a once a  great and glorious city , a naval base and industrial center during both  the Ayubid and Mamluk periods. Scientists and philosophers swarmed the city. It is necessary to define the start of this decay.  Give reasons for that state that befell the most important Islamic port of Egypt since the Arab conquest and up to the arrival of the Ottomans in 1517. Egypt was the most important center for the export of spices, Egypt’s primary commerce with Christian Europe, on which had depended the Sultans during the era of Al Ashraf Bersbyai (1438-1422) .The battle of the  Cypriots   was in truth at the back this devastation, but actual deterioration started with the discovery by the Portuguese of the Cape of Good Hope in 1498, this discovery hit Egyptian economy very strongly and cut off any link between the country and Europe.

Yet it would be unjust to state that Alexandria’s deterioration was due to the Ottomans, for the city had began be in ruins and to degenerate during the last part of the Mamluk era. This is confirmed through the description of the historian Ibn Ayas of the visit of the Sultan Konsowa El Ghoury to the city in January 1515, that is two years prior to the arrival of the Ottomans. The description confirms the deplorable state of the city , that reached its peak once Egypt lost its independence, and  became in 1517 just a viceroy subservient to the Ottoman Empire. Nonetheless Alexandria participated in the resistance against the Ottomans, by providing Toman Bey with arms and ammunition. Ibn Ayas mentions the fact that when the Sultan Selim 1st went to Alexandria he confiscated all the weapons from the towers.

At the start of the Ottoman occupation an Ottoman Admiral by the name of Perri Rais drew a map of the city, showing the two mosques at the internal of the city, where Sultan Selim had prayed on Friday 6^th of June. The map also pinpointed two heights near the sea gate, a few houses scattered to the east of the city by Rachid gate, the rest was just waste. The remaining inhabitants of the city clustered near the Hepastadium, between the eastern and western ports. This region was named the Turkish District.

In fact the Turkish city comprised some lines of houses with a few mosques in between. Thus Alexandria’s buildings during the Ottoman period Alexandria’s inhabitedness was limited to the area situated at the external of Bab El Bahr (Sea Gate) leading to the isthmus, while this area thrived with new buildings to become later the new center of habitation of Alexandria and to replace the “ Kasba” known as the Arab city. We find that inhabitedness within the city walls during the seventeenth century were limited to a few hotels frequented by traders to store their commodities, in addition to two churches and some monasteries and a mosque. Yet these Khans and hotels began to diminish in the eighteenth century and become non-existent, and Alexandria proceeded towards deterioration in quick steps.

Its inhabitants became scarce, and as described by European travelers, who visited Egypt during the eighteenth century, it turned into a small village, with a weak garrison unable to defend it against any enemy.

By 1517, the Ottomans started to become interested in Egyptian ports, and the Sultan took care to subdue the ports of Damietta, Alexandria and Suez having them under his direct authority.  He appointed three commanders to govern these ports and report to him. The most important of them was the commander of Alexandria, he provided the Ottoman fleet with four battleships, and six others if the fleet moved to the east of the Mediterranean. Or in case they served as protection for Egyptian ships going to Istanbul carrying wheat and tributes. But after 1757, the Beys of the Mamluks were able to fill high positions in Alexandria, and Damietta as a proof of the weak domination of Egypt by the Ottomans.

Deterioration of Egyptian cities was generalized at this period of Ottoman rule. Alexandria retained some of its local industries, such as weaving, Moroccan clothing, woolen clothing used by Bedouins in the desert, soap, wine, matches and tanneries. And some ships. Commerce was no better, for the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope. The Sultan Selim 1^st tried to recover some of Alexandria’s commerce by entering into a treaty with the Republic of Venice on 14^th February 1517, in which he gave them all the privileges they had during the Mamluke period. But this was to no avail, for since the middle of the sixteenth century, Venice had no representative in Alexandria but a deputy council. Venetian commodities were unloaded in the port of Alexandria waiting for tradesmen from Cairo to come and purchase them. As for exports and imports, these were under the governing of the Alexandria customs which subjected them to the system of obligations. Fees were collected and part taken and the rest was handed over to the almanac.

It is simple following the preceding to form an idea about the social categories living in Alexandria during the ottoman period. Some craftsmen, traders, members of the garrison, Bedouins, religious men, judges, Ulama, Syrians, foreigners. Some of these Ulamas went to Cairo to teach Islamic theology. In Alexandria students benefited from these theologists, notable among them were Mohamed effendi Bin Ismail El sakandary who conversed in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. Other notable writers and teachers were: Ahmed Bin Abdallah Bin Salam Aledquawi. Undoubtedly these people played an important role in the preservation of the Islamic heritage and played roles of intermediates between the peoples and those who govern them.

Alexandria ailed like the rest of Egypt, and during the second half of the eighteenth century the ottoman reign over the country was just nominal. Al gabarty says in his book “ The Wonders of Antiquities” about unrest occurring in the city in 1784 due to a deceased who it was said was murdered by the followers of the Sirdar. The Sirdar was captured, insulted and set on a donkey and driven across the city after having shaved half his beard, and beat him. This was custom in such cases in Alexandria during the Greek period. The people of Alexandrian suffered injustice, disgrace, ravaging under the rules of the two Mamluks Murad Bey and Ibrahim Bey just before the French Expedition.

Alexandria from the French Occupation up to the Year 1807:

In the year 1798 Alexandria faced the first chock when the troops of Bonaparte landed there. Although several projects for a French occupation of Egypt had been advanced in the 17^th and 18^th centuries, the purpose of the expedition that sailed under Napoleon Bonaparte from Toulon was specifically connected with the war against Britain. Bonaparte supposed that by occupying Egypt to damage British trade.

Meanwhile, as a colony under revolutionary France Egypt would be regenerated and regain its ancient prosperity. The Alexandrian prepared to meet the enemy, but was vanquished and a commission of scholars and scientists to investigate and report the past and present condition of the country therefore accompanied the military and naval forces.

Yet what was taken against French troops was that they did not heed places of prayers and attacked those within. The French lost about thirty soldiers  and eighty wounded as a result of their attack of the city. But the Sultans did not respond to the envoys for help by the city. Bonapart in one of his report states that each house in the city was a citadel, bullets came out of mosques. Among the wounded were General Klebere and General Menou, while Bonaparte barely escaped a bullet in the streets of Alexandria. Bonaparte entered into a treaty with the people of Alexandria, stating that the high placed people of the city would continue their jobs, perform their religious rites .He took some gold and silver bars, but when he reached Cairo he send wheat to replace those bars. Bonapart remained in Alexandria for seven days , and prior his leaving for Cairo he appointed Mr. Mohamed Koraim as Governor of the city. He left a military garrison to protect the city, and befriend the Egyptians, but they were unhappy and waited for any opportunity to attack the French.

Bonaparte assured the Egyptians that he came as a friend to Islam, and the Ottoman Sultan to punish the usurping Mamluks and to liberate the people .From Alexandria the French advanced on Cairo defeating Murad Bey. But the French soldiers did not comply with the directives and scavenged the city. The people of Alexandria were not that patient and on 13 July 1798 one of the artillery soldiers was discovered dead. The people got ready for the coming reprisal. Kleber called Mohamed Karim as well as the Judge who passed his judgement on the killer in the presence of all the nobility of the city. The killer had escaped before his trial, but it seems that Kebere had become convinced the French soldier had committed an act that merited his murder. He therefore issued a proclamation in which he said they would face reprisal if they did not respect the customs and habits of the people, and that they may even be executioned.

Kleber began to doubt Mohamed Karim’s intentions towards the French, so he ordered his arrest on July 20^th accusing him of instigating the citizens to attack General Demoy, which in Beheira. He replaced by Mohamed El shorbagy Al Gheriany, he was helped in his work by Sheikh Mohamed El Mesiry. Bonaparte ordered the Execution of Mohamed Karim.

The arrival of the French was the start of a new era for Alexandria. Bonaparte ‘s aim to make of the city a point of contact between Egypt and France. One of the engineers gave his remarks concerning the planning of the city, the French innovated strategic points necessary for the protection of the city against British ships. They built the citadel of Kom El Dikk and Kom El Nadora. They also established the Diwan of Alexandria; he also established a commercial court. Yet Alexandria remained a small city, perhaps worse than before, it could no longer bare the British siege of its waters, while the French devised new means of taxation, epidemics spread, according to Lobere, the inhabitants decreased to reach seven thousand. Matters had worsened after the arrival of the French.

Once the French left Egypt in 1801, the country underwent a period of anarchy.  Aly pasha Al gazaerly (1803- 1804) neither respected Alexandrians or foreigners. These retreated to their ships and each national sent complaints to their motherlands

 Al Gazaerly was sent out of the city and was replaced by Ahmad Khorcheid. His mission was to prevent the city from falling in the hands of the Mamluke Beys, and subjugate them to the authority of the government in Cairo.

When Mohamed Aly Pacha was appointed viceroy of Egypt, he was careful to keep Alexandria as the homeland of Ottoman authority in Egypt .The Sultan ( El Baab Al Ali) therefore appointed Amin Agha in the government of Alexandria in 1805. This act did not escape the French and English councils who regarded it as a desire to maintain Alexandria independent from the Pashas of Egypt. The Council General Misset was trying to prepare public opinion in Alexandria to accept the occupation of the city by British soldiers. Dovetti wrote to his government saying that cheers were heard on June 4^th 1805 acclaiming Sultan George. These were the Arabs who had received money from the English to hail the King of Britain.

Despite the fact that Alexandria was directly under the Supervision of “El Baab El Ali” Yet Mohamed Ali could not hide his French tendencies. This Led Britain on to send a garrison to Alexandria on 16^th March 1807 to occupy Alexandria. On March 20^th Amin Agha surrendered to Frazer. Haj Mohamed Khattab and Sheikh Ibrahim Pacha Abdallah (Son signed the surrender conditions 

Among the direct results of Freezer campaign, was enabling Mohamed Ali to take over Alexandria. On 20^th September 1807 Mohamed Aly entered the city at the head of 2000 soldiers on his way from Damanhour and was greeted by firearms.

Mohamed Aly now had hold of Alexandria, and some of those who were friendly with either the English or French left the city.

Alexandria during the Reign of Mohamed Ali from 1807 to 1848 

When Mohamed Ali took over Alexandria in ( 1805-1848) it was a great turning point in the history of the city, and a new resurrection for the city which exceeded its old glory. During the last part of the eighteenth century Alexandria was limited to the old ancient Turkish City which was unplanned (present Gomrock district). At the start of the 19^th century, started the area referred to as El Mntia, then it began to stretch gradually until it comprised new districts which could be detected on the various maps drawn by the technical department of the Alexandria Municipality of Alexandria.

When Mohamed Lay entered Alexandria he was astonished to find the treasury empty, so he borrowed from the European commercents an amount of twenty thousand rials which the customs would repay from its income. To facilitate matters of transportation he decided to dig the Mahmoudia Canal. This was concluded by the French engineer Coste. Digging was terminated in 1820.Alexandria than replaced Rachid commercially. Gardens, orchards, potable water became available and the number of inhabitants reached 143,000 during the period from 1840 to 1848.

Mohamed Ali started constructing commercial and industrial establishments, he was aided by the French Engineer Cerisy to set up the dockyard the biggest of its kind and served for training and for the building of a new fleet.

A lighthouse was built on Ras El Tine. Mohamed Aly’s policy helped restore to Alexandria some of her glory, her population increased, communication with Cairo was facilitated and the system of telegrams came into being.

Councils from Austria, Greece, Switzerland, France and others came to Alexandria economy and external trade flourished, foreign ships were docked in the city, and the number of foreigners reached 4886which equals about 12,2%. Wheat and cotton transactions took place in Alexandria from which they were exported. Alexandria Bank was founded , this led to the expansion of commerce and control of the currency issued by the Pacha in 1843.But two years later Mohamed Aly liquidated the bank. He created the Ornato council which did everything possible for the beautification of Alexandria.  

Alexandria during the rule of the Successors of Mohamed Ali :

The policy of Abbas the first centered upon consolidating his relations with the Bab El Ali, and the resistance of foreign authority in Egypt, particularly with France. He decided together with the English Engineer Robert Stevenson to construct a railway between Cairo and Alexandria, this had great effect upon the revival and glory of Alexandria.

His successor Mohamed Said (1854-1863) the city underwent economic and construction revival, it became amongst the most important financial cities in the east, some banks and companies were established.

During the period of Keidive Ismail ( 1879-163)Aalexandria European King, Europeans filled the city, held important posts, and lived mostly in the area of Midan Al Manchia.in 1873, the French Sculptor Jacquemont made a bronze statue of Mohamed Aly. He planned the streets, and in 1863 he contracted with Lebon for the establishment of the Alexandria Electrical company. He also established the sanitary department known as ( Intendence Sanitaire), wastewater pipes were constructed underground and a mail service came into being, it was named the European Postal Service. A network of rails connected Alexandria with many parts of Egypt and telegraphic services were installed. He expanded the Alexandria port for fear that commerce may be deviated to the Suez Canal which was about to be terminated.He built a floating bassin which he brought from France in 1868.A wave barriere            was built to protect the port .He also constructed a dock freight and stevadoring                  at the inside of the Port. A lighthouse was constructed in Agamy in 1873,besides a marine school, and a second besides the dockyard. Positive results were evident regarding the commercial movement between Alexandria and other countries. It is evident that foreigners presented a big community in the city during the last quarter of the nineteenth century, more than in any other Egyptian city.

That is how Alexandria started to grow and expand, a waste disappeared, construction was abundant, life ran once more in its veins, the number of its inhabitants , the rural laborer  migrated to live in the glowing city, economy flourished, schools were built journalism emerged, Egyptian public opinion showed its strong façade fighting for what is legally his.

The Greco - Roman Museum

Mr. Ahmed Abdel Fattah

 Director of the museum.

The Greco Raman Museum was founded in 1891 and at first     occupied part of a building in rue Rosette (Al Horia Avenue now) to preserve the antiquities from excavations and constructions taking place.

It became indispensable to have a proper place for the museum, in 1895 the present building was inaugurated but the museum was completed in 1904. The collections of the museum began in the form of donations from the antiquities Department in Cairo, in addition to some Alexandrian citizens  who  donated some of their possessions to the museum, some of these names can be sited here such as: Zizinia, Glymonopolo,  but the most extravagant  among them was the wealthy Greek John Autoniadis, owner of the palace and picturesque gardens on the banks of the Mabmoudia Canal. His interest and extravagance earned him to have his name allocated to room number 10 in the museum, where many of the pieces donated by him to the museum are  shown.

Since its establishment, and up to the 23rd of July Revolution, the museum has had several foreign directors, who have performed excavations in many sites, searching for Greco- Roman remains. These excavations were not limited to the localities surrounding Alexandria, but exceeded them to other parts that have witnessed some Greco- Roman historical events, to name some of these cities we have: Fayoum, El Bahnassa and the western desert. The museum had a role in monitoring excavations in old parts of these cities and their old houses.

The museum was enriched with numerous archeological pieces, many tombs were discovered as well as ancient royal sites. Among the most important discoveries in the past century are the cemeteries of El Shatby, Mostafa Kamel, and El Hadara which go back to the Ptolomaic period. Another discovery was the underground remains around the pillar of Dioceletian in the temple of the Serapeium. The cemetery of Kom El Shoqafa and the tombs of Kom El Dikk were discovered, a part of the religious life of the ancient city during the Greek, Roman and Islamic periods, the most import is the amphitheater the baths, Roman houses,  villas and ancient streets.

Excavations also discovered the Temple of the deified crocodile in Fayoum, the entire temple, its contents transferred to be rebuilt in the museum garden the excavations undertaken  by the museum also discovered in ancient canope (Abo Kir) an import out collection of statues of Ramses II and preceding kings. The statues were made from granite and Quartz, mosaic colored floors, basins, columns , black basalt and steel statues were also discovered. These represented the priestess of Isis. 

Antiquities controls also led to the discovery of numerous artistic treasures of  Egyptian, Greek and Roman statues and engravings as well as remains of a daily ritual found in Mamoura, on the land owned by the ex -prince Omar Tousson. The museum excavations also unveiled in El Bahnasa statues of priestesses from the Roman period, as well as important remain of a Christian Basalica made from limestone. In 1937 the museum also discovered a Roman temple at the inside a sand quarry, in the area of Al Ras El Soda ,of Ionic style dating to the second  century. It contained marble statues of the Alexandria Triade (Isis - Osoris - Canope). Harpocrate - and  Hermanius. These were in the inside of one of the temples as well as an elevated base with the name of the person who built the temple. In 1960 a discovery  was made of an important part of the western cemetery of ancient Alexandria. This was in the area of Wardian, the cemetry depicted for the first time a rural scene, or an ancient farm were we have  a water wheel pulled by two fat bulls, waterbeds and a shepherd as well as a statue of Hermes who usually was put in fields and houses.  In addition is a  scene of the soul facing a table for offerings.

These pictures were made according to the classical heritage of Egyptian, Ptolomeic and roman drawings.

The museum also discovered two important cemeteries one from the Ptolomeic period, found in Al Wardian market. This is an example of the ancient cemeteries of Alexandria, the second was also discovered in Al Wardian area and dates from the Roman period. They were cut up, transferred and rebuilt in southern garden of the museum In the tombs of El Shatby, and El Anfouchy, and underneath the palace of Ras El Tine were important tombs that have enriched  the museum with artistic treasures International events taking place between the two world was and witnessed by Egypt affected the museum as well . Egypt’s regain of her supremacy, and governed for the first time by an Egyptian ruler had a strong impact on the museum which developed under the reign of president Mohamed Hosni Mubarak in the year 1984, the first Egyptian national to heed this important establishment since 1891.

President Mubarak inaugurated the museum and inspected the works, he gave directives to add a new wing for coins in room 24. The historical demonstration of the museum begins in room 6.The different rooms of the museum were organized as follows.

Rooms 1-4 :

        ·A collection of tombstones with Coptic and Christian symbols, some of the exhibits were found in the monasteries to the west of Alexandria, while others were found at Ashmounein, Akmim and Aswan, upper Egypt.

Among these collections is a marble panel in relief showing Saint Menas standing between his two camels. In front of the panel we find two marble columns and between them parts of an alter screen which belonged to one of the churches of the Henaton monastery to the west of Alexandria.

A colossal marble base of a statue with a Greek inscription which states that the canal of Alexandria (mahmoudieh now) was cleared by the governor of Alexandria during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Leo1. above this inscription is a cross relief  found at Hagar el Nawatieh Alexandria.

A collection of colored pottery depicting Egyptian art, some designs represent some birds human figure, plants.

A strange cushion made of wool of different colors, found in one of the Christian cemeteries at sheikh Abada, Assiout Governorate. The case also contains some weights, heads of spears, and a lump of bronze coins.

A mumy with a little black cross painted on the neck, and therefore belonging to the Christian period. But shows that Egyptians maintained their rituals despite the   fact of becoming Christians.

A statue representing the good shepherd symbolizing Christ . Dating  to the sixth  century AD. This is a are relic found in the western desert.

A huge vase of pottery with simple drawings of dove and a fish. It contains the drawing of one of the saints with a head surrounded by a halo, found in Wadi El Natroune.

A collection of textiles from the Christian period  representing coptic  popular art from various partts of Egypt.

A marble capital of the basket type. Each side is decorated with a papyrus plant. The capital is hollowed ,perhaps to be used as a baptismal font. A similar capital can be seen at the end of the hall and believed to be from the church of St Mark in Alexandria.

A collation of funerary scenes with Christian symbols and texts. They are made from limestone.

Room number 5 :

        ·In this room is a collection of golden jewelry, statues and parts belonging to the serapuim. As well as artistic pieces found in the important archeological sites whether in Alexandria or Beheira or those that were donated to the museum or those that were purchased .Among the important pieces on display are Beautiful plaques from the serapuim.

And a statue of Harpocrate in pure gold, silver and bronze, glass and tilt.

These are inscribed in Hieroglyphic and Greek.

A collection of gold plaques covering different parts of the mummy, among them are covers for finger, eyes, tongue found in 1942 in the tomb of Mamsis in the catacombs of Kom El Shokafa.

A collection of gold jewelry discovred in 1983 inside a sarcophagus of granite during the digging of the military residences at the eastern part of the Mostafa Kamel Camp.

A collection of gold Jewelry found in Tell El Nagih, Mohamoudia, Beheive governorate. Among the collection are  golden earrings a square picture showing legendary persons and a golden disk.

Bust of Aphrodite goders of love and beauty 25cm  long. Originally  the bust was complete with arms and feet. It is considered as a rare piece from the Ptolomaic period . It is also rare to find silver statues of godess Aphrodite.

A cup on which is depicted in relief the ceremony of preparing for drinking, performed by the helpers of Dionysus god of drunks he is seen between the vines. The cup is in silver with large parts  drawn in gold.

Room Number 6

        ·A small marble head of Alexander the Great, made of white marble, with his well known features . Its height is 32 cm and was found near Canope street.

Two pieces of colored mosaic on the eastern and western walls. Found in the eastern delta. They picture a lady wearing a helmet on her head in the shape of the helm of a battle ship. Some historians think it symbolizes the city of Alexandria. Some contemporary scholars think that it is a statue of Oueen Bernichi the Second wife to Polomey III (221 - 246BC).

A beautiful statue of Harpocrates represented naked, while his face over flows with happiness. Found with marble collection in El Mohamara (Sidi Bishr).

A huge statue of the God Serapis in the shape of the bull- god Apis between the horn of the bull are the solar disk and uraeus. The inscription that was originally placed on the pillar which supports the body of the bull indicates that the statue was seated in the time of the Roman Emperor Hadrian (AD 117 - 138) the present inscription on the support is now fixed to the base of the statue. Found in 1895 near the mouth of the large shaft to the west of Pompeii’s pillar Alexandria.

Room Number 7:

¨                  This Room contains a collection of antiquities dating from different epochs the oldest being the age of the Middle Priod,these pieces were excavated in the area of Al Tabia Al Tawfikia. Among these pieces, in the center of the Room is a colossal statue in Red granite of one of the Pharoahs, which was afterwards usurped by Ramses II ( 19^th dynasty, 1298-132 B.C ) In the left hand is a scepter and on the left side of the statue is a figure of the Princess Hut-Ma-Ra, one of the daughters of the King. It was she who, according to tradiion, saved the infant Moses.On the back of the statue are the names and titles f Ramses II. Found in the Temple of of Menouthis, south of Abukir.

Headless sphinx in sandstone originally made for a Pharoah of the twelfh dynasty.

Room number 8:

        ·A mummy from the Roman period. Over the mummy's face is placed a portrait of the deceased painted in encaustic (wax) technique on a wooden tablet, framed by a border of canvas and plaster gildede and fastened down by the bands which envelops the mumy.

     Room number 9:

·                Most of the antiquities exhibited in this room were found in the excavations made at the village of Batn-Herit (Fayoum) known in the Ptolematic period by the name of Theadelphia (the crocodile) was discovered in 1913, and the temple itself with its monuments were transported to the museum. The sanctuary can be seen in the north garden.

·                In the middle of the room we find a wooden stand and strtecher which wer used in the procession of the crocodile-god.On the stretcher is the mumy of the crocodile.

·                In the western side of the room we find a large wooden door from the temple, with a Greek inscription carved on it which says that the pylon and the door were erected by a certain Agathodoros in honour of king Ptolemy, his sister and wife Cleopatra, and his wife and niece Cleopatra, in 137 B.C.

·                In the north western corner we find part of an obelisk of king Seti (XIX dynasty 1312 - 1298 B.C.) found in Alexandria in the Labbane district. It had been transported from Heliopolis. The king is represented paying his devotions to Aton.

·                Room number 10

This room was known as that of John Antoniadis, a Greek citizen of Alexandria

Who was enamoured by the Greko-Egyptian civilization. He had presented the museum with his collection, which comprised Egyptian antiquities dating from an a latter age of the history of ancient Egypt, except for wooden coffins from the modern dynasty.

The upper part of the room contains small statuettes of various Egyptian deities from early ages, Osiris, Isis suckling Harpocrates, Nefer-Tum. Imhaton, Apis, Thut, Petah, Anubis, Sekhmet and sacred fish.

Collection of bronze vases , with scenes in relief related to the worship of Isis.

An ampullae representing two apes sitting on both sides of the neck. This ampullae has inscriptions of funerary prayers to the gods Ptah and Knet. These were presents offered  at the beginning of the Egyptian year. The Ushabtis statuettes were in the shape of a mummy, with clear Egyptian faces representing the spirit of agriculture.

In the same way as our modern commorative medals and statues. Thelarge heart scarabs, generally flanked with falcon wings were placed in mummy wrappings and often inscribed with the 30^th chapter from the book of the Dead to prevent the head from testifying against the deceased.

Head of a mummy of a child with the face partly concealed by a covering made of small linen bandages.

The head of a second child mummy covered by a guilded mask of gold.

The sons of Horus, the genius Tuamutel ( with a hawk’s head ) he is followed by Qebhsennuf with a Jackal’s head. The genius Amset with a human head is seen followed with a baboon’s head. These four figures represent the four sons of Horus.

Room number 11

·          In this room are exhibited some of the most interesting specimens that the

museum posses of the art of Egypt in the Greco- Roman period. The monuments are mixed character for they are Egyptian in style and technique, but they reveal here and there the influence of Greek art.

Two large blocks of limestone representing foot-prints with a greek inscription on top of them. These footprints were dedicated to some divinities –Serapis or Isis-by those who received favor from the gods and so during their visit to the temples they used to leave such offerings as a sign of gratitude.

In the middle of the room is a  round floor of colored mosaic with architectural designs and and plumes of birds. This is a remain of an old palace , or temple, it reflects the level of construction in the Royal district.

A picture portrays the funerary beliefs   showing in relief two snakes, in the center is an altar , these represent the  gods Serapis and Isis. The picture is made from limestone.

On the northern wall are the remains of a limestone picture in relief of a temple with the picture of a god wearing a strange crown , connected to a number of deities such as Bess, Abis, The crocodile, and the ram, on the left is the sun god with the head of a hawk and the body of a human, between the two gods is a statue of the sphinx, facing him is a hawk were the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. This represents Egyptian beliefs during the late Egyptian periods.

A beautiful statue of a woman , the lines are Egyptian, but are soft and expressive of the details of the body underneath the robe, it seems to have been effected by Greek art, the statue is headless and its height is 50cm.made of yellowish limestone.It dates to the third century BC.

Statues of priestesses in black basalt, found in the north temple to the west of Lake Karoune, in Fayoum oasis, dates from the first century AD.

 

Room number 12

·          Collosal statue in marble of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius 161-180 AD.The Emperor is represented full face , standing upright, slightly turned to the right. The weight of the body rests on the right leg, while the left leg is bent and drawn backThe emperor is bareheaded, clothed with the imperial cuirass as a military commander, and decorated with the commander’s scarf. The cuirass is decorated in relief with the head of the Medussa and two winged griffin. It is the most complete statue of an Emperor found in Alexandria. It is two meters ,15 cm and is made from white marble.

Red granite found in Abu Qir – Canope-

Head of Ptolomy 6^th 145-180 BC .remains of a long beard, but no royal crown. The eyes are hollow, but used to be filled with precious stones. Theight of the statue is 61cm made of grey granite, found in Abu Qir, shows the amalgamation of Greek and Egyptian art.

Another head of Ptolomy 6^th produced in a Greek manner, difference in sculpture between the two statues.

A marble statue of a woman characterised by the signature of the sculptor on the knee.

 Two Statues of Bacchus god of alchol.

A head thought to be that of a Ptolomaic Queen, found in Alexandria from the

  Hellenistic period.

Head of Alexander the Great found in the Bay of Abu Qir.Age has rubbed of its features. Its length is one foot.

Statue of the godess of the Nile leaning on the sphinx, surrounded by young children symbolizing the number of cubits the  Nile, made from marble.

Room number 13

·          Collosal statue of an Emperor wearing a military dress. The head of Septimus Severus, 193-211 AD. Has been fixed to the statue but does not belong to it.

            Room number 14

·          Half of this room contains a rare collection of statues of Roman emperors

And their relatives, the staues are made from marble, they belong to the Emperors Augustus 27 BC. And Tiberious 37-14 BC.

Agrabina, mother to Nero Claudius54-41 BC. Vespasian 79-69 BC. Marcus Aurilius 181-167, Hadrian138-117, Domita Longina, wife of the Emperor Domitian 96-79, Marcus Aurelius 161-180, Septimus Severus193-211.In the center of this collection is a huge marble statue of Emperor Comodus, offered by ex- king Farouk in 1938 AD.

Room number 15

·          In this room are exhibited many architectural fragments of Egyptian and Greek motifs and sometimes a mixture of the two. The most interesting specimens in this respect are the capitals and colums of different styles on which colors still survive.